International Arbitration 2026 Comparisons

Arbitration in Thailand continues to demonstrate a positive growth trajectory. Based on the statistics published by the major arbitral institutions in Thailand, the number of arbitration cases has consistently increased year after year, reflecting the growing confidence of both domestic and international parties in arbitration as an effective dispute resolution mechanism.

Looking ahead, this trend is expected to continue. Thailand has increasingly adopted investment-friendly policies aimed at attracting foreign investors. As foreign investment increases, so too does the number of commercial contracts containing arbitration agreements; arbitration remains the preferred dispute resolution mechanism for cross-border transactions.

Equally important, Thailand’s principal arbitral institutions, including the Thai Arbitration Institute (TAI) and the Thailand Arbitration Center (THAC), have become increasingly active in promoting their services in the international market through collaborations with overseas institutions, international conferences and training programmes. These initiatives have significantly enhanced the international profile and credibility of Thailand as a seat of arbitration, making Thai arbitral institutions more widely recognised by the global business and legal communities.

Furthermore, increases in both international and domestic arbitrations are expected to be seen in Thailand. The backlog of cases, and the increasing number of disputes submitted to the Thai courts, have prompted some courts in Bangkok to actively promote and encourage parties to have their disputes resolved by in-court arbitration or so-called judicial arbitration under the Arbitration Rules of the TAI, Office of the Judiciary, since 1 May 2024. Although this form of arbitration has rarely been used in the past and is different from that recognised under the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 1958 (the “New York Convention”), the initiative would greatly improve Thai business awareness of arbitration and benefit the system of arbitration in Thailand as a whole.

Domestic parties resort to international arbitration predominantly for cross-border conflicts involving foreign entities and their affiliates – and where the contracts contain arbitration clauses.

Furthermore, there is precedent in which the Thai court recognised the enforcement of the award rendered by a sole arbitrator in Singapore under Clause 5.3 of the SIAC Arbitration Rules 2016 (the “SIAC Arbitration Rules”) regarding the expedited procedure, while the underlying arbitration agreement provided for a tribunal of three arbitrators. In that case, the arbitration was conducted under the expedited procedure, which permits the appointment of a sole arbitrator. This demonstrates the binding effect of incorporating the SIAC Arbitration Rules into the arbitration agreement, including the use of expedited procedures. As a result, the original provision for three arbitrators was deemed superseded by the parties’ agreement to arbitrate under the SIAC Arbitration Rules.

Based on the firm’s experience and observations, the following industries have experienced the most significant international arbitration activity in Thailand in recent years.

• Construction and infrastructure: This sector continues to account for a substantial proportion of international arbitration cases. Major infrastructure developments, industrial projects and engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contracts frequently involve foreign contractors, consultants and financiers. The technical complexity of construction disputes, coupled with claims relating to delay, variations, defects, extensions of time and cost overruns, makes arbitration a preferred dispute resolution mechanism.
• Energy and natural resources: The energy sector, including conventional power projects, renewable energy developments, liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects and cross-border power purchase arrangements, has also generated considerable arbitration activity. These projects typically involve long-term contractual relationships, significant capital investment and multiple foreign stakeholders. Disputes often concern project delays, pricing mechanisms, regulatory changes, performance obligations and force majeure.
• Digital assets: This sector is closely connected with transactions conducted on blockchain technology, which can be accessed globally. As a result, participants in digital asset transactions are often located in multiple jurisdictions. Arbitration is therefore particularly well suited to resolving disputes involving cross-border parties. The availability of arbitrators with expertise in digital assets and blockchain technology will also play a significant role in encouraging parties to choose arbitration.
• Electric vehicles (EVs) and international distribution: The rapid adoption of EVs has fundamentally transformed the automotive industry. This growing demand has encouraged many international EV manufacturers to invest in Thailand and appoint local authorised distributors to market and service their vehicles. Notably, distribution agreements in this sector frequently contain arbitration clauses. As a result, any disputes in relation to the international distribution of EVs are increasingly likely to be resolved through arbitration.

These industries experience more international arbitration than others because they typically involve high-value, technically complex and cross-border commercial transactions. The parties are often sophisticated commercial entities that negotiate arbitration clauses at the outset of their contractual relationship, recognising arbitration as a neutral and efficient mechanism for resolving international commercial disputes and enforcing awards across jurisdictions.

Several institutions in Thailand provide arbitration services under their own arbitration rules to facilitate domestic and cross-border disputes that arise in Thailand and other countries. This includes the TAI, the THAC and the Office of the Arbitration Tribunal of the Thai Chamber of Commerce (TCC).

Arbitration proceedings are also conducted in special government institutions in Thailand, which include the Office of the Insurance Commission (OIC), the Thai General Insurance Association, the Department of Intellectual Property (DIP) and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).

However, when it comes to international commercial disputes, the TAI and THAC have emerged as the two most prominent arbitral institutions in Thailand. In recent years, the THAC has been actively promoting international arbitration through hosting the annual Thailand ADR week. Moreover, it has been engaging in collaborative relationships with a variety of stakeholders, both domestic and internationally. Some of these partnerships have resulted in the THAC establishing specialised centres and arbitration rules, such as the Thai-Chinese International Arbitration and Mediation Center (TCIAC), the Thailand Center of ADR for Sport (TCAS) and the Thailand Logistics ADR Center (TLAC). Furthermore, its growing number of administered cases may also be attributed to the progressive admission of Thai and foreign arbitrators to its panel.

On the other hand, the TAI, while maintaining a single set of arbitration rules, has been comparatively active in fostering co-operative relationships and entering into memorandums of understanding with both private and public organisations. The TAI, having had a longstanding presence in the sector since its establishment in 1990, is well known for the expertise of its staff, its well-established procedural framework and its comparatively lower administrative fees. Importantly, the TAI has continuously developed its online services to enhance the efficiency and convenience of arbitration proceedings and promoted the use of online hearings. As a result, the TAI continues to develop as a modern arbitral institution and gain increasing recognition and acceptance among both domestic and international users.

Without consolidated public official records on international arbitration, it is difficult to definitively determine which arbitral institution is the preferred choice for international arbitration in Thailand. Both institutions are currently undergoing review of their arbitration rules. The resulting amendments to their arbitration rules remain to be seen, and it is yet to be determined which of the institutions will be introducing a more welcome change.

No new arbitral institutions were established in 2025–26.

According to the Arbitration Act BE 2545 (2002) (the “2002 Arbitration Act”) the following courts, subject to their jurisdictions, are capable of adjudicating disputes pertaining to both international and domestic arbitration:

• the Central Intellectual Property and International Trade Court;
• the Regional Intellectual Property and International Trade Court;
• a court where the arbitral proceedings were undertaken within its jurisdiction;
• a court where either party has established domicile within its jurisdiction; and
• a court that has jurisdiction over a dispute submitted to arbitration.

Generally, the Central Intellectual Property and International Trade Court is recognised as a court whose judges possess extensive expertise in international disputes and complex commercial matters. Therefore, where issues arising from arbitration proceedings require judicial intervention, parties often choose to bring such matters before the Central Intellectual Property and International Trade Court.

Thai legislation, particularly the 2002 Arbitration Act, as amended by the Arbitration Act BE 2562 (2019) (the “Thai Arbitration Law”), governs both international and domestic arbitration within Thailand and makes no distinction between the two. The Thai Arbitration Law is based largely on the text of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985). However, Thailand has not adopted the amendments introduced by the UNCITRAL in 2006 (the “Model Law”). As it stands, the Thai Arbitration Law diverges from the Model Law in the following respects.

• its scope of application is not limited to international commercial arbitration;
• if the parties fail to reach an agreement on the number of arbitrators, a sole arbitrator shall be appointed;
• it lacks provisions on interim measures and preliminary orders granted by the arbitral tribunal, as adopted by the Model Law in 2006;
• it permits the parties to request court-ordered interim measures prior to the commencement of arbitral proceedings, provided they commence arbitration within 30 days following the granting of such measures;
• it expressly provides arbitrators with immunity from civil liabilities, except in cases where they cause damage to either party wilfully or as a result of gross negligence;
• it stipulates a three-year limitation period to apply for enforcement of an arbitral award from the date it becomes enforceable (Section 41, the Thai Arbitration Law); and
• lastly, it bestows on the presiding arbitrator the authority to independently issue an award, order or ruling in situations where a majority vote cannot be secured.

Thai arbitration law has not undergone any significant modifications in the past year. There is currently no prospective legislation in the pipeline that might potentially alter the arbitration landscape in Thailand.

To be enforceable, an arbitration agreement must take the form of an arbitration clause within a contract or as a standalone agreement. In principle, it must also be in writing and signed by all parties involved.

An arbitration agreement can also be recognised as such if it has been concluded in an exchange between the parties by means of letters, facsimiles, telegrams, telex, exchange of data with electronic signatures affixed or other methods that can provide a record of the agreement. This can also be in the form of an exchange of a statement of claim and statement of defence in which the existence of an agreement is not merely alleged by one party and denied by the other.

Additionally, provided they are documented in writing, any references in a contract to a document containing an arbitration clause can be considered as an arbitration agreement. This holds true as long as the reference is such that it makes that clause a part of the contract.

The Thai Arbitration Law does not provide comprehensive guidelines on what constitutes an arbitrable matter. It simply stipulates that courts may dismiss an application for the enforcement of an arbitral award if it finds that the award pertains to a dispute “not capable of settlement by arbitration under the law”.

The determination of arbitrability is thus left to the discretion of the courts and is assessed on a case-by-case basis. Nevertheless, it is generally acknowledged that the following types of disputes are not arbitrable:

• criminal disputes;
• insolvency disputes;
• civil and commercial disputes involving the violation of public policy or related to a person’s legal status (eg, marital status);
• certain categories of labour disputes that are subjected to dispute resolution mechanisms under the Labour Relations Act BE 2518; and
• disputes explicitly required by law to be adjudicated by courts – for example, those involving claims for a company’s dissolution.

The general approach to determining arbitrability hinges on whether exclusive jurisdiction for certain matters is vested with the courts. This means that if a specific type of dispute or subject matter is explicitly assigned to be resolved by courts per the law, then such matters cannot be arbitrated and must be resolved through court proceedings.

The courts have generally respected the choice made by the parties regarding the governing law of the arbitration agreement. They will enforce and interpret the agreement in accordance with the law chosen by the parties. In cases where the parties have not explicitly designated the governing law for the arbitration agreement, the approach of the courts has been to apply Thai law.

Under Thai law, two forms of arbitration are recognised: in-court arbitration and out-of-court arbitration. In-court arbitration, or so-called judicial arbitration, refers to a process at the court of first instance whereby the parties agree to refer their disputed issues to arbitration before the court. It is viewed as a case management technique and is governed by Sections 210–220 and 222 of the Civil Procedure Code (CPC) (rather than the Thai Arbitration Law), which stipulate:

• the procedures for establishing an arbitral tribunal (either by the parties themselves, the court or a combination of both);
• the procedural rules the tribunal must adhere to;
• the formulation of an arbitral award; and
• the enforcement of said award.

Without the instant enforceability of the award incorporated into the court’s judgment, it lacks international enforceability under the New York Convention. Despite these provisions, in-court arbitration has seldom been utilised in Thailand, likely due to insufficient public awareness.

Thailand recognises the rule of separability for arbitration clauses. It is considered an independent agreement separate from the main contract. Consequently, even if the arbitral tribunal determines that the main contract is null and void, this decision does not affect the validity of the arbitration clause.

As stipulated in Section 11 of the Thai Arbitration Law, an arbitration agreement can take the form of an arbitration clause within a contract or exist as a separate agreement altogether. Further reinforcing the distinctness of arbitration clauses, Section 24 of the Thai Arbitration Law confirms their separability. This provision ensures that any invalidity of the primary contract does not impact the legality of the arbitration clause contained therein.

In instances where a claimant presents a case containing a seemingly legally enforceable arbitration clause before a Thai court, the court does not immediately dismiss the case. Instead, it provides the defendant with the opportunity to raise an objection. Subsequently, the court is mandated to conduct an inquiry hearing to determine the enforceability of the arbitration clause under the provisions of the Thai Arbitration Law. Generally, if an arbitration agreement appears to be legally binding and complies with the Thai Arbitration Law, the Thai court will likely dismiss the case and thereby compel the parties to proceed with the arbitral process.

A generally binding arbitration clause may, however, become unenforceable should it be contained in a standard form contract that gives the party prescribing such contract an unreasonable advantage over the other party. A relevant example is a dispute between a consumer and a business operator where the business operator’s standard form contract required any dispute between the parties to be resolved by arbitration. Here, the Supreme Court ruled that the agreement to arbitrate was an unfair contract term due to its effect of increasing the consumer’s burden while at the same time reducing the consumer’s rights to specialised proceedings under the Consumer Case Procedure Act, BE 2551, which is part of the Thai consumer protection regime (Supreme Court Judgment No 4183/2565 (2022)).

The Thai Arbitration Law does not limit the parties’ autonomy to select arbitrators. It is furthermore the obligation of the arbitrator to disclose any circumstances that might lead to justifiable doubts regarding their impartiality or independence. It is incumbent upon the arbitrator – from the moment of appointment and throughout the entirety of the arbitral proceedings – to promptly disclose such circumstances to all involved parties, unless the parties had previously been made aware of these by the arbitrator themselves.

If the parties are unable to reach a consensus on the number of arbitrators, the arbitration process will proceed with the appointment of a sole arbitrator.

In situations where the tribunal should consist of a sole arbitrator and the parties fail to agree on who this arbitrator should be, either party may petition the competent court to appoint the arbitrator on the parties’ behalf.

In cases where the arbitral tribunal consists of more than one arbitrator, each party shall appoint an equal number of co-arbitrators, and the appointed co-arbitrators are then tasked with appointing a presiding arbitrator. If a party fails to appoint its co-arbitrator(s) within 30 days of receiving notification to do so from the other party, or if the parties’ appointed co-arbitrators fail to appoint the presiding arbitrator within 30 days from their appointment, either party may petition the competent court for an order appointing the co-arbitrator or the presiding arbitrator.

Where the parties have agreed to an appointing procedure but it has not been complied with successfully, either party may file a petition with the competent court to appoint the arbitrator as it deems appropriate where:

• a party fails to perform as required under such procedure;
• the parties, or the arbitrators appointed by each party, are unable to reach an agreement under such procedure; or
• a third party, including an institution, fails to fulfil any duty entrusted to it under such procedure.

The default process does not differ for multiparty arbitrations.

The court is vested with the authority to appoint arbitrators as stipulated under Section 18 of the Thai Arbitration Law. Please refer to 4.2 Default Procedures.

The appointment of an arbitrator can be challenged if there are circumstances that lead to justifiable doubts about their impartiality or independence, or if they lack the qualifications agreed upon by the parties pursuant to Section 19 of the Thai Arbitration Law. However, a party may not challenge the appointment of an arbitrator they have appointed or in whose appointment they have participated, unless they were not aware – or could not have been aware – of the grounds for such challenge at the time of appointment.

Please refer to 4.1 Limits on Selection and 4.4 Challenge and Removal of Arbitrators.

With respect to the TAI Rules, the arbitrator shall be impartial, independent and possess the qualifications prescribed in the arbitration agreement, as well as be prepared to execute his/her duties with speed and efficiency. In case there are justifiable doubts as to the arbitrator’s impartiality and independence, the arbitrator shall disclose any facts that may give rise to such doubts.

Under the THAC Rules, the arbitrator shall perform his/her duties with impartiality and independence and shall not act as the defence for a party even if nominated by that party. The arbitrator shall also disclose the facts that may raise doubts over his/her impartiality and independence.

The principle of competence-competence is applicable in Thailand. Under this principle, an arbitral tribunal has the authority to rule on its own jurisdiction. This includes issues related to:

• the existence or validity of the arbitration agreement;
• the validity of the appointment of the arbitral tribunal; and
• determining whether the dispute at hand falls within the scope of its authority.

Any challenge to the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal to hear the dispute must be raised before the tribunal no later than the date of the submission of the statement of defence on the merits of the case. A party to the dispute is not precluded from raising such a challenge by the reason that such party has appointed – or participated in the appointment of – an arbitrator. In raising a challenge that the arbitral tribunal is exceeding the scope of its authority, any party to the dispute must raise it immediately upon the occurrence of the incidence during the arbitral proceedings, unless the arbitral tribunal considers the delay justified – in which case, the arbitral tribunal may permit a party to the dispute to make a challenge later than the time limit specified.

Another important case is where a party becomes aware that any provision of the Thai Arbitration Act from which the parties may derogate, or any requirement under the arbitration agreement, has not been complied with; such party must raise an objection within a reasonable period of time or within the time limit prescribed. Otherwise, the party shall be deemed to have waived its right to object to such non-compliance.

In a case brought before the Thai Supreme Court involving a competence-competence challenge seeking to set aside an arbitral award, the court demonstrated a reluctance to intervene and dismissed the argument in favour of arbitration (Supreme Court Judgment No 7801/2561(2018)). The Thai Supreme Court has consistently interpreted the grounds for setting aside arbitral awards narrowly (Supreme Court Judgment No 10668/2553 (2010)), thereby preserving the principle of finality in arbitration. Accordingly, where an arbitral tribunal renders an award within the scope of the arbitration agreement (Supreme Court Judgment No 2963/2563 (2010)), the award is binding on the parties, and there are no grounds for setting it aside.

Typically, the court treats the motion requesting a ruling on the jurisdictional issue in the same manner as other cases. All procedural submissions exchanged during the proceedings – including rulings from the arbitral tribunal affirming or denying jurisdiction – are usually considered as supporting evidence.

If the arbitral tribunal renders a preliminary ruling stating that it has jurisdiction over a case, either party may file a motion requesting the competent court to rule on the matter within 30 days of receiving the preliminary ruling. If the tribunal’s jurisdiction is addressed in the final award instead, the award debtor can challenge the tribunal’s competence during an annulment action or by objecting to the enforcement action initiated by the award creditor.

To determine the admissibility and jurisdiction of a case, the court will evaluate the existence or validity of the arbitration agreement and other relevant factors under the de novo standard of judicial review. However, if the tribunal issues a preliminary ruling affirming its jurisdiction, it may be accorded a certain level of deference. This means that, although the court retains the authority to independently determine whether the arbitral tribunal has jurisdiction, it may take into account the tribunal’s prior analysis and findings on jurisdictional issues.

The enforcement or refusal of an arbitral award enforcement by a Thai court is determined based on a limited set of grounds, as outlined under Section 43 of the Thai Arbitration Law. This provision specifies that a court may refuse the enforcement of the arbitral award, irrespective of the country in which it was issued, provided the party against whom the enforcement is sought can prove one of the following.

• A party involved in the arbitration agreement lacks legal incapacity according to the law applicable to that party.
• The arbitration agreement is not binding under the law of the country agreed upon by the parties (or, in the absence of any indication thereof, under the law of the country where the award is issued).
• The applicant party did not receive proper advance notice of the appointment of the arbitral tribunal or the arbitral proceedings or was otherwise unable to present their defence in the arbitral proceedings.
• The award involves a dispute not falling within the scope of the arbitration agreement or containing a decision on a matter beyond the scope of the arbitration agreement. However, if the award on the matter beyond the scope can be separated from the part within the scope of the arbitration agreement, the court may set aside only the part that exceeds the scope of the arbitration agreement or clause.
• The composition of the arbitral tribunal or the arbitral proceedings was not in accordance with the agreement of the parties (or, in the absence of any agreement by the parties, in accordance with the law of the country where the award is issued).
• The arbitral award has not yet become binding, or it has been set aside or suspended by a competent court (or under the law of the country where it was made). Unless the setting aside or suspension of the award is sought from a competent court, the court may postpone the hearing for the enforcement of the award as it deems appropriate. Furthermore, upon the request of the applicant party, the court may order the party against whom enforcement is sought to provide suitable security.

In 2017, Thailand’s Supreme Court ruled on a subcontract agreement arbitration clause, asserting in Supreme Court Judgment No 1115/2560 that such clause does not oblige parties exclusively to submit to arbitration – litigation is also permissible.

However, in 2019, a revised stance was taken. In Supreme Court Judgment No 3427/2562, the Supreme Court ruled that the defendant’s witness presentation showed substantiated evidence that the phrase “may refer the dispute to arbitration” in an arbitration clause does not provide for a choice between litigation and arbitration. Instead, the parties in this specific case intended for arbitration to be the only means of resolving their dispute once the 60-day period for amicable settlement had elapsed. Consequently, the court enforced the arbitration agreement, dismissing the litigation. This welcome ruling signalled clear support for arbitration in Thailand.

The key takeaway from these cases is the court’s preference for mandatory language to be used in arbitration agreements to ensure enforceability. These judgments sparked debates on the extent to which the court should consider the parties’ intentions, as well as the perceived validity and enforceability of the arbitration clause.

Thai laws only permit a case to be brought to the arbitration process when the parties give their consent to the arbitration proceedings in line with the Thai Arbitration Law. Therefore, in the absence of a clear arbitration agreement in writing or in a specified form under Thai Arbitration Law, there is no circumstance in which Thai laws would allow an arbitral tribunal to assume jurisdiction over those individuals or entities who do not consent to the arbitral proceeding.

The Thai Arbitration Law does not provide the arbitral tribunal with the authority to grant interim relief. Even though some arbitration institutions’ rules within Thailand permit arbitrators to grant interim measures, such orders inherently lack enforcement power and rely more on the parties’ compliance therewith.

Consequently, in a practical context, rather than requesting the tribunal-ordered interim relief, a party will instead submit a request to a competent court to seek the issuance of interim remedies.

The courts have the authority to grant interim relief in arbitral proceedings. If a party to an arbitration agreement wishes to protect their interests, they may file a motion requesting the competent court to issue an order imposing provisional measures before or during the arbitral proceedings. If the court determines that it would have been able to issue such an order had the proceedings been conducted in court, it may proceed as requested. The provisions governing provisional measures under the CPC will apply mutatis mutandis; thus, the court can also issue seizure orders, grant injunctions and even issue orders requiring government authorities to suspend any registration related to the property in dispute.

It is worth noting that Thai courts are generally conservative when granting interim remedies. This is because interim remedies are considered to infringe on the rights of the opposing party prior to the conclusion of the proceedings. As such, when considering an interim remedy, Thai courts typically set a very high threshold in practice. This means they exercise their discretion sparingly and usually require a strong case to be presented before they will grant such remedies.

Thai legislation does not include any provisions for the use of emergency arbitrators.

The Thai Arbitration Law does not specifically address whether the right to apply for an order of interim relief from the competent Thai court is available when the arbitration is seated in a foreign jurisdiction. Nonetheless, if the interim relief being sought falls within the jurisdiction of the Thai competent court (ie, assets are located in Thailand) and the court determines that the case has sufficient grounds and it would have been able to issue such an order had the proceedings been conducted in court, it may proceed as requested.

Thailand incorporates a provision within the CPC analogous to the concept of security for costs. However, this provision only empowers the respondent to seek such a remedy. In the context of arbitration proceedings, the Thai Arbitration Law also provides that the relevant provisions of the CPC governing this concept shall apply mutatis mutandis.

If a respondent desires to seek this form of interim relief, they must file an application with the court requesting the claimant to deposit a sum of money or furnish a guarantee to secure the payment of court fees or costs, which the claimant might be liable for should they lose the case. The burden lies with the respondent to demonstrate that either:

• the claimant is not a resident of Thailand and does not possess any assets within the country; or
• there is reasonable cause to believe the claimant would not be able to pay the court fees if they were to lose the case.

In Thailand, parties are at liberty to choose the arbitration rules that would govern the conduct of the proceedings, so as long as they are not contrary to the mandatory provisions of the Thai Arbitration Law.

Parties may choose institutional rules as they often provide more detailed procedural guidelines compared to the Thai Arbitration Law. International conventions to which Thailand is a party, such as the New York Convention, may also affect the procedure and enforcement of arbitration in Thailand. To be precise, since Thailand is a member state of the New York Convention, Thailand is obligated to recognise and enforce arbitral awards made in the territory of other member states of the New York Convention.

It is important to note that Thai law also has certain mandatory rules that cannot be overridden by agreement between the parties – for example, the rules concerning public policy and order.

The particular procedural steps in arbitral proceedings that are required by law include, but are not limited to, the following:

• the parties must have a valid arbitration agreement providing for the settlement of disputes by arbitration;
• a party must take the necessary steps to commence the arbitral proceedings, such as serving a written notice on the other party requesting that the dispute be referred to arbitration or submitting the dispute to an arbitral institution; and
• the arbitral tribunal must be properly constituted in accordance with the arbitration agreement or the Thai Arbitration Law.

The Thai Arbitration Law provides that the arbitral tribunal has the power to conduct any proceedings in any manner it deems appropriate. This includes the power to determine the admissibility and weight of the evidence presented by each party. The arbitral tribunal may choose to apply the provisions of the CPC relating to the rules of evidence, as appropriate, on a mutatis mutandis basis.

In addition to the foregoing, arbitrators have a duty to uphold impartiality and independence at all times and must possess the qualifications stipulated by the arbitration agreement. If the parties to the contract agree that an agency established for dispute resolution via arbitration is to conduct the proceedings, the arbitrator should also meet the qualifications required by that agency.

In essence, this duty imposes the obligation to disclose any such circumstances that might raise doubts about impartiality or independence. Such disclosure should be made as soon as these circumstances become known and should be consistently updated throughout the arbitral proceedings. If the parties are already aware of these circumstances, the arbitrator need not make any further disclosure.

Failure to make these necessary disclosures can lead to the arbitrator’s disqualification by the competent court (Supreme Court Judgment No 2231-2233/2553 (2010)). It may further render the composition of the arbitral tribunal and the arbitral proceedings unlawful (Supreme Court Judgment No 3542/2561 (2018)), with the consequence that enforcement of the arbitral award would be contrary to public policy and good morals, thereby providing grounds for the court to set aside the award.

Moreover, Section 23 of the Thai Arbitration Law holds the arbitrator liable for any civil actions that they conduct in their capacity as arbitrator if:

• such actions are carried out with the intention to cause harm; or
• such actions result from gross negligence, thereby causing damage to any party involved in the arbitration.

National legal representatives are not subject to any additional eligibility requirements, as the Thai Arbitration Act does not prescribe specific qualifications for legal representatives in arbitral proceedings. They are not required to hold a lawyer’s licence. However, they should possess sufficient knowledge and understanding of the procedures and practices involved in conducting arbitration proceedings.

However, the 2019 amendments to the 2002 Arbitration Act allow for the appointment of foreigners as representatives in arbitration proceedings, provided that such foreign representatives meet the appropriate visa and/or work permit requirements in order to participate in arbitration proceedings in Thailand.

Regarding domestic litigation, under the CPC, each of the parties is required to submit to the court a list of evidence they plan to use in their case within the timeline specified by the CPC, unless there are sufficient grounds for such party not being able to submit within the timeline specified.

In essence, a list of evidence is a document itemising witnesses and evidence that a party intends to adduce to the court. This serves the purpose of informing the opposing party in a timely manner about the documentary evidence and witnesses that the presenting party intends to rely on. Per the CPC, parties must submit their initial list of evidence to both the court and the opposing party at least seven days before the date of the evidentiary hearing.

Furthermore, any additional lists of evidence should be submitted no later than 15 days from the first hearing date. Any evidence that is not declared as part of an accepted list of evidence can be objected to by the court or challenged by the opposing party.

Regarding evidence in their possession, parties must submit this evidence to the court and provide copies thereof to the opposing parties. Regarding evidence not in their possession, they can request the court to issue a subpoena. This subpoena directs the holder of the desired evidence to submit it to the court within a designated timeframe.

Notably, documents intended to be used in the cross-examination process are exempt from being listed in the list of evidence, and they do not need to be submitted to the opposing party in advance. This allows for some degree of flexibility and unpredictability in the cross-examination process.

With respect to arbitration proceedings, since the Thai Arbitration Act provides that the arbitral tribunal may apply the provisions of the CPC relating to the rules of evidence, as appropriate, on a mutatis mutandis basis, the arbitral tribunal may order the parties to submit a list of supporting evidence in accordance with the principles under the CPC, as mentioned previously.

However, the arbitral tribunal also has discretion to determine whether and how such documents should be submitted, taking into account the circumstances of the case and the interests of fairness. This approach is consistent with the arbitration rules of both the TAI and THAC, which similarly grant the arbitral tribunal broad discretion in managing procedural matters.

The Thai Arbitration Act does not expressly provide for rules of evidence. Instead, it provides that the arbitral tribunal may apply the provisions of the CPC relating to the rules of evidence, as appropriate, on a mutatis mutandis basis. Therefore, if the rules of evidence under the CPC are applied by the arbitral tribunal to the arbitral proceedings conducted in Thailand, they are the same rules that apply to domestic litigation.

Under the Thai Arbitration Law, an arbitrator does not have the powers of compulsion to order the production of documents or require the attendance of witnesses. Any document submission is strictly voluntary, and there are no penalties for failure to comply.

If a party wishes to request evidence from any third party or summon a third party to the hearing, such party is recommended to file an application with the court to issue a summons. This court process will entail legal effect and enforceability, which may not otherwise be available through the arbitral proceedings alone.

While the Thai Arbitration Law does not explicitly address confidentiality, it can be assured through agreement between the involved parties, the terms of reference or the rules of the arbitral institution. By way of an example, Article 36 of the TAI Arbitration Rules maintains that all arbitration proceedings, claims, defences, documents, evidence, orders and awards must remain confidential.

Disclosure is only permitted, with the consent of the parties, for:

• the protection of legal rights;
• the enforcement of or challenging an award; or
• under a legal duty to disclose.

However, the arbitral proceedings and certain factual matters may be disclosed before the court, to the extent necessary, if a party applies for recognition and enforcement of the arbitral award as the court’s proceedings in Thailand are generally open for public observation.

Similarly, Article 87 of the THAC Rules 2015 also reinforces confidentiality in arbitration proceedings. Exceptions are made for instances such as enforcing or setting aside an award, complying with a court order or legal provisions, enforcing a legal right or complying with a regulatory entity’s request related to arbitration proceedings. Confidentiality extends to all aspects of the proceedings, including the names of arbitrators, statements, evidence, documents and the award itself – unless such information is already in the public domain.

The arbitral tribunal in Thailand will make decisions according to the terms of the contract, while also considering the relevant trade usage in the event of a trade dispute.

In terms of decision-making, all awards, orders and rulings are determined by a majority vote – unless otherwise agreed between the parties. If a majority cannot be reached, the presiding arbitrator has the authority to make the decision. Procedural questions are also decided by the presiding arbitrator if authorised by the parties or all members of the arbitral tribunal.

The tribunal’s award must be in writing and signed by the tribunal members. If there is more than one arbitrator, signatures from the majority will suffice if the reason for any missing signature(s) is given. The award must clearly state the reasons for its decisions, unless the parties agree otherwise. However, it cannot decide on matters beyond the scope of the arbitration agreement or the relief sought by the parties, except for an award made in accordance with a settlement agreement or the fixing of arbitration fees or arbitrator remuneration.

The award must also state the date and place of arbitration and is considered made at that place. After the award is made, a copy is sent to all parties involved without any time limits on delivery specified.

There are no specific limitations imposed on the types of remedies available under Thai law, as long as they do not contravene public order or the good morals of the people of Thailand.

Successful parties can recover interest and legal costs without significant restrictions. In the event that the enforcement is contested, the Thai courts may take a more conservative stance to reflect amounts more fitting to the local context – although they do not apply a cost-sharing approach. If these remedies align with Thai laws and do not contradict public order or good morals, they can be included in the enforcement of the award (Supreme Court Judgment No 2082/2562).

Under the provisions of the Thai Arbitration Law, an arbitral award is not subject to appeal. Therefore, if a party is dissatisfied with the award, they may seek to challenge it by submitting a motion to set aside the award or refuse its enforcement.

The grounds for setting aside the award and refusing its enforcement are generally similar. These grounds may include situations where the award involves a dispute that is not capable of settlement by arbitration, the enforcement of the award would be contrary to public policy, the award deals with a dispute that falls outside the scope of the arbitration agreement, or the composition of the arbitral tribunal or the conduct of the arbitral proceedings is not in accordance with the agreement of the parties.

After the court of first instance issues a judgment on the request for enforcement of an arbitral award, a dissatisfied party may have the option of appealing the judgment directly to the Supreme Court. However, the grounds for appeal are limited and include the following:

• the recognition or enforcement of the award is contrary to public policy;
• the order or judgment is contrary to provisions of law relating to public policy;
• the order or judgment is not in accordance with the arbitral award;
• the judge who presided over the case provided a dissenting opinion; or
• the order pertains to provisional measures.

Under Thai law, the scope of appeal or challenge regarding arbitral awards cannot be limited or expanded by the parties.

The court’s review of an arbitral award during the enforcement stage is limited, and it does not generally include a review of the merits of the case. However, the firm found a few precedents where the court conducted a review of the merits because the court viewed that they were contradictory to public policies. In principle, and in most cases, however, the court shall deny the enforcement of an arbitral award only on specific grounds. Please refer to 11.1 Grounds for Appeal.

Thailand has ratified the New York Convention. Consequently, arbitral awards issued in other countries that are also parties to either the 1927 Geneva Convention or the New York Convention are enforceable in Thailand.

A party can apply for the enforcement of an arbitration award at the competent court within three years from the date the award becomes enforceable by filing a motion with the court along with the following documents:

• an original or certified copy of the arbitral award;
• an original or certified copy of the relevant arbitration agreement; and
• a Thai translation of the arbitral award and the arbitration agreement, which must be prepared by a certified translator, or by a Thai envoy or consul in the country where the award or agreement was made.

Upon receiving the request, the court will forward the application to the opposing party, so as to give them an opportunity to file an objection. The opposing party has 30 days to file the objection, which can be extended with the court’s approval.

Once an objection is filed, the court will schedule one or more hearings to address the issues of the case and the number of witnesses, and set trial dates for examining the evidence.

The court will conduct evidence examination trials, where both parties present their evidence and cross-examine the evidence presented by the opposing party. After reviewing the arbitral award and ensuring its compliance with Thai law, the court will render a judgment on whether or not to enforce the award.

The judgment of the court of first instance is immediately enforceable, unless one party files an appeal with the court of appeal and requests a stay of the execution or enforcement process. If the court of appeal orders a stay, the execution or enforcement process will be suspended until the case is finalised.

The judgment can be appealed to the Supreme Court on limited grounds, such as when:

• the recognition or enforcement of the award would be contrary to public order;
• the judgment contradicts legal provisions related to public order;
• the judgment conflicts with the arbitral award itself; or
• the presiding judge has provided conflicting opinions in the judgment.

The Thai Arbitration Law does not explicitly specify whether or not the Thai courts have the authority to annul a foreign arbitral award. A Supreme Court ruling (in case No 5511-5512/2552 (2009)) ruled that the Thai courts could set aside a foreign arbitral award. However, this ruling was revisited in 2015 by a further Supreme Court ruling (in case No 9476/2558 (2015)), which stated that the Thai courts cannot set aside a foreign arbitral award as the Thai Arbitration Law only bestows on the Thai courts the authority to annul an award with the seat of arbitration in Thailand.

Regardless of the country in which the arbitral award was made, the court has the authority to deny enforcement if the party against whom enforcement is sought provides evidence that the award has been set aside by the courts at the seat of arbitration.

In situations where an award is currently undergoing set-aside proceedings at the seat of arbitration, the court has the discretion to delay the enforcement hearing as it deems necessary and appropriate.

According to the Thai Arbitration Law, the Thai courts cannot raise a defence of sovereign immunity at the enforcement stage, unless the recognition or enforcement of such award will be against public order or the good morals of the people of Thailand.

In general, Thai courts have a pro-enforcement approach when it comes to the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards. There are only limited circumstances where the court has refused to recognise or enforce an arbitral award based on public policy or other grounds. For example, an award granting compound interest was refused enforcement by the Thai Court as it was inconsistent with Section 224 of the Civil and Commercial Code, a provision of law concerning the public policy of Thailand (Supreme Court Judgment No 500-501/2565(2022)).

Class action arbitrations, which were previously allowed in Thailand under the Regulation of the Office of the Judiciary Governing Arbitration, Arbitration Institute (No 3) BE 2563 (2020), have been cancelled by the subsequent regulation (the Regulation of the Office of the Judiciary Governing Arbitration, Arbitration Institute (No 3) BE 2564 (2021)). Therefore, at present, Thailand does not have any specific legislation that expressly recognises or regulates class arbitration.

Please refer to 4.1 Limits on Selection.

In Thailand, there are no specific laws or regulations that explicitly prohibit third-party funding in arbitration cases. However, Thai courts have historically had a negative view of third-party funding – positing that a party who has no direct interest in a matter, yet still seeks to claim any proceeds, is acting immorally and contravening public policy.

Under the Thai Arbitration Law, the power of arbitral tribunals or courts to consolidate separate arbitral proceedings is not explicitly specified. However, it is worth noting that Article 13 of the TAI Rules 2017 grants the TAI the authority to consolidate proceedings – even if the arbitration agreements are not identical – based on the criteria of convenience.

The TAI Rules 2017 provide the TAI with broad discretion in determining whether to consolidate separate arbitral proceedings. This discretion appears to be wider than the powers granted to some other arbitral institutions in relation to consolidation. Nevertheless, it remains to be seen how the discretion will be exercised by the TAI.

In addition, it is important to consider the potential challenges that may arise when consolidating proceedings where the arbitration agreements are not identical. There is a risk that a decision to consolidate – and any subsequent award resulting from the consolidated proceedings – could be subject to a challenge in court, either in Thailand or in other jurisdictions during the enforcement process.

Thai courts recognise and uphold the principle of privity of contract. Accordingly, third parties cannot be bound by an arbitration agreement or an arbitral award.

That said, the position may differ in relation to interim measures. Under the Thai Arbitration Act, the provisions of the CPC governing interim measures apply mutatis mutandis to arbitration proceedings. As applications for interim measures must be made to the Thai courts, the court exercises its powers under the CPC when granting such relief. In certain circumstances, the CPC permits interim orders to be directed against or have legal effect on third parties.

For example, a court may order a registrar, who is not a party to the proceedings, to suspend or refrain from registering a transaction. Accordingly, there is a possibility that a court-ordered interim measure issued in support of arbitration may have legal effect on, or be enforceable against, certain third parties where permitted under the general proceedings under the CPC.