Litigation 2026 Comparisons

Greece follows a civil law system based on codified legislation, blending elements of both inquisitorial and adversarial models. While parties are primarily responsible for presenting claims, evidence, and arguments, judges actively manage proceedings, examine evidence, and question witnesses to ensure fairness and thorough fact-finding. Litigation relies mainly on written submissions, though oral hearings occur in certain cases to allow argumentation and witness or expert examination. The system is further shaped by constitutional guarantees, EU regulations, and international treaties, providing a structured and predictable framework for resolving domestic and cross-border disputes.

The Greek judicial system has two main tiers: First Instance Courts and Courts of Appeal. First Instance Courts include Single-Member Courts for cases up to EUR250,000 or specific disputes, and Multi-Member Courts for higher-value or complex matters. Courts of Appeal review both facts and law, while the Supreme Court exercises cassation jurisdiction, addressing legal questions only. Major cities feature specialised dockets for commercial, family, property, intellectual property, and bankruptcy cases, with Piraeus maintaining a historic maritime docket.

Civil proceedings follow a structured sequence:

• cases begin with the filing of a writ and service on the defendant (30 days for domestic, 60 days for foreign or unknown defendants);
• certain disputes require mandatory mediation;
• parties submit briefs and supporting evidence within prescribed deadlines, including rebuttals; and
• hearings are scheduled after the written stage, typically eight to 12 months later, usually without oral advocacy, though some cases allow it; courts generally aim to issue judgments within eight months, with service triggering appeal timelines.

Certain matters, such as family or labour disputes, follow accelerated procedures with oral hearings.

In Greece, civil hearings are in principal open to the public, but court filings and case files remain confidential. Access to pleadings and evidence is limited to the parties and their lawyers, while third parties may gain access only with court authorisation and a legitimate interest.

Courts may exclude the public from a hearing to protect personal data, public order, or the interests of minors. They may also restrict access to documents containing sensitive personal information or trade secrets. These safeguards operate alongside GDPR obligations and Greek Law 4624/2019. Family law proceedings, such as custody and divorce cases, are typically subject to heightened confidentiality, limiting public attendance and access to court filings.

Representation before Greek civil courts is governed by the Greek Lawyers’ Code (Law 4194/2013) and the Code of Civil Procedure, under which only lawyers qualified and registered with a Greek Bar Association may appear in court, with rights of audience increasing according to their seniority; legal representation is generally mandatory in civil matters. EU-qualified lawyers may provide services in cooperation with a Greek lawyer, while non-EU lawyers have no rights of audience and may only advise on their domestic law through Greek counsel.

There are no specific legislative provisions that either permit or prohibit third-party litigation funding under Greek law. In practice, certain insurance providers offer legal expenses coverage that may include the costs of litigation or representation. Additionally, lawyers may, in some cases, undertake matters on a success fee basis (see 2.6 Contingency Fees) and assume responsibility for funding litigation expenses.

Since Greek law does not regulate third-party litigation funding, there are no express limitations on the types of lawsuits that may, in principle, be funded.

Third-party funding, in the ways described under 2.1 Third-Party Litigation Funding, could be provided to either party, with no distinction between plaintiffs and defendants.

The amount to be funded, in the ways described under 2.1 Third-Party Litigation Funding, is limited to the litigation expenses, is not subject to any legal minimum or maximum, and would depend on the terms agreed between the parties.

The costs that may be funded typically include legal fees, court and bailiff expenses, expert witness and translation fees, and other procedural costs arising in the course of litigation.

Contingency fees are permissible, provided the agreement is executed in writing and duly filed with the competent Bar Association. The fee may not exceed 20% of the case’s value, or 30% where multiple lawyers are engaged, and may be paid out of the proceeds of the litigation or, alternatively, from the client’s assets.

There are no prescribed time limits for a party to obtain third-party funding, in the ways described under 2.1 Third-Party Litigation Funding, and such arrangements may be made at any stage of the proceedings.

Before initiating legal proceedings in Greece, parties are generally expected to undertake certain pre-action steps, particularly regarding mediation and, in some cases, extrajudicial notices. Under the Greek Code of Civil Procedure and Law 4640/2019, the claimant’s lawyer must inform the claimant of the possibility of resolving the dispute through mediation and submit a brief mediation information statement to the court. Failure to comply may result in dismissal of the claim or fines. Additionally, claimants often serve pre-litigation notices to encourage amicable settlement. While defendants are not formally obliged to respond, non-engagement may affect procedural considerations or settlement opportunities.

Under the Greek Civil Code, most civil claims are subject to a five-year statute of limitations, while claims not specifically listed are generally subject to a twenty-year period. The limitation period begins when the claim arises and expires at the end of the applicable term.

Certain claims, such as commercial disputes, sales of goods, or lease agreements, follow a five-year limitation measured from the end of the year in which the claim arose. The limitation period may be suspended or interrupted in specific circumstances, including ongoing negotiations, mediation proceedings, or statutory moratoria. Courts may also grant interim or provisional measures to protect rights during the limitation period, even before formal litigation or arbitration has commenced.

In Greece, civil courts exercise jurisdiction based on both subject-matter and territorial criteria, with the defendant’s domicile serving as the primary determinant. Subject-matter jurisdiction defines the type of court competent to hear a particular category of cases, while territorial jurisdiction determines which specific court may adjudicate a claim, considering factors such as the location of the defendant, the place of a tortious act, contract performance, or real property. Some bases of jurisdiction are exclusive, requiring cases to be filed in a specific court, while others allow the plaintiff to choose among several courts.

Specialised courts handle matters such as commercial, maritime, family, or property disputes. Foreign defendants may be subject to Greek jurisdiction when obligations arise in Greece, the defendant consents, or relevant assets or business activities exist, with service abroad governed by international conventions. Appeals are heard by the courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court reviews legal issues on cassation without re-examining facts.

In Greece, civil proceedings begin with the filing of a written complaint before the competent court, identifying the parties, the facts, and the relief sought. While stating the legal basis is standard practice, it is not required. A copy of the complaint is served on the defendant, and, after completing pre-action requirements, including mandatory mediation, the court sets deadlines for written pleadings and supporting documents or schedules a hearing.

Amendments to the complaint are generally limited to minor corrections or clarifications; new facts or claims are typically not allowed. The court decides whether proposed changes are procedural or substantive, and the plaintiff may also narrow the relief sought or request a declaratory judgment in writing or orally before the first hearing.

In Greece, service of process is primarily the responsibility of the plaintiff and is usually carried out through a court bailiff.

• The plaintiff must ensure that the complaint and all accompanying documents are served on the defendant within strict deadlines, 30 days for domestic defendants and 60 days for foreign defendants or those of unknown residence.
• Proof of service is then filed with the court, and becomes part of the case file. Personal delivery is the standard method, although, when this is impractical, service may be effected via a family member or at the defendant’s workplace. Timely service is critical, as a claim is generally considered never filed if service is not completed within the prescribed period.
• For defendants abroad, service is executed through the relevant Public Prosecutor, with documents officially translated as required.

Greek courts may exercise jurisdiction over foreign defendants when obligations arise in Greece, the defendant consents, or other jurisdictional grounds apply. In ordinary proceedings, service deadlines are 30 days for domestic defendants and 60 days for foreign or unknown-residence defendants; in other proceedings, service must be completed 30 or 60 days before the hearing, depending on the defendant’s residence.

In Greece, if a defendant does not respond to a civil lawsuit, the case may proceed by default (ex parte). The defendant must file a defence within the deadlines set by the Greek Code of Civil Procedure. If they fail to do so, the court may continue without their participation. Before issuing it, the court checks that service was properly carried out and that the claim is procedurally admissible.

In Greece, collective legal actions are largely regulated by the Consumer Protection Law (Law 2251/1994). This framework was modernised by Law 5019/2023, which transposes EU Directive 2020/1828 on representative actions to safeguard consumers’ collective interests. The reform renames such proceedings as “representative actions”, and introduces updated rules governing their conduct. The law came into force on 26 June 2023 and applies to representative actions filed from 25 June 2023 onwards.

In Greece, lawyers are expected – but not legally required – to provide clients with an initial overview of anticipated litigation costs. Under the Greek Lawyers’ Code (Law 4194/2013), lawyers must act with transparency and diligence, giving a general outline of expected legal fees, court expenses and factors that may influence overall costs, such as case complexity, duration, expert evidence, and the possibility of appeals, while also advising on alternative dispute resolution options.       

The Greek Code of Civil Procedure sets out provisions for interim remedies, which aim either to preserve the subject matter of a dispute until the court decides on the merits or to address urgent situations requiring immediate action. Certain measures, due to their specific nature, may be classified as “quasi-interim measures”, even if they do not strictly serve the protective purpose of standard interim relief.

When an application for interim measures is filed before the main action, the judge may set a deadline for initiating the principal claim, which must be at least 60 days from the issuance of the interim order.

To safeguard the dispute’s subject matter pending a final judgment, the court may, upon petition, order provisional attachment of assets or bank accounts, registration of a mortgage pre- notation, creation of a pledge over movable property, judicial sequestration, or preservation of the legal and factual status of the property in question – an immediate discovery process in a case where means or proof could be at risk of destruction or loss. Additionally, a European Account Preservation Order may be requested under EU Regulation 655/2014.

In Greece, civil procedure does not offer a direct equivalent to early judgment or pre-trial dismissal mechanisms found in common law systems, such as summary judgment or motions to strike out a claim. Cases are generally considered based on written pleadings, supporting evidence, and formal requests, and are typically resolved only after the main hearing. The closest mechanisms are interim measures or injunction orders, which can be decided quickly but do not determine the merits of the underlying dispute.

In Greece, the civil law system does not provide a direct equivalent to dispositive pre-trial motions. The closest mechanism would be interim measures, which can be decided quickly but do not replace the main trial.

In Greece, third parties may participate in ongoing litigation through intervention, joinder, or announcement of the dispute.

• Intervention allows a third party with a legitimate interest to join the proceedings, either through main intervention, seeking protection against all parties at first instance, or supportive intervention, assisting an existing party.
• A request for joinder enables certain third parties to be added in specific circumstances, such as when multiple parties share a common interest, when the third party holds rights connected to a real estate dispute, or when a party may claim compensation. Courts may also order joinder on their own initiative, granting the third party formal status in the case regardless of active participation.
• The announcement of the dispute permits a party with a lawful interest to inform a third party of a pending case before the first-instance judgment is issued. Unlike a joinder, this mechanism is primarily for notification, and the third party may only actively join by filing an intervention.

If the parties do not participate, they lose the right to challenge the judgment later. Deadlines for these third-party actions depend on the type of procedure, the stage of the case, and the relevant filing or hearing dates.

Under Greek civil procedure, a defendant cannot generally request the court to order the plaintiff to provide security for the defendant’ s costs prior to trial. Court costs are usually determined after the judgment. However, in certain specific cases, such as when provisional or interim measures are sought, the court may require the plaintiff to provide a guarantee or deposit to secure compliance with the measure. Any such order is discretionary and assessed based on necessity and fairness.

The costs of interim applications or motions, including court fees and legal expenses, are generally borne by the losing party. The court may decide on cost allocation immediately when issuing the order, or defer the decision until the conclusion of the main proceedings. Courts retain discretion to adjust costs if interim relief is partially granted or denied.

A hearing for a petition seeking interim measures is generally scheduled within a month or longer after filing, depending on the court’s workload. Requests for injunction orders, such as in cases of imminent harm or other urgent circumstances, may be granted within one to three days of filing the petition.

Civil procedure in Greece does not provide a discovery process, as is the case in common law systems. Parties are responsible for presenting their own evidence, which may include documents, witness testimony and affidavits, expert reports, or other relevant materials, while the court oversees the collection, presentation, and admissibility of such evidence.

There is no general pre-trial mechanism to compel the opposing party to produce documents or witnesses. The court may, however, order the production of evidence if it is relevant and proportionate, and may limit the scope or costs to ensure fairness and efficiency.

Although Greek civil procedure lacks a formal discovery process, the court may order third parties to produce evidence or documents if a party shows that it is relevant to the dispute. Such requests are submitted by motion, and the court can require the third party to appear or provide documents under its supervision. Conditions may be imposed to protect confidentiality or limit the burden on the third party; in urgent cases, the request can be made through provisional measures proceedings.

Evidence in civil cases is primarily court-controlled and party-initiated, rather than following an adversarial discovery model. Only facts that are contested and relevant to the outcome of the case must be proven, although the court may also consider matters of common knowledge or widely acknowledged facts. Each party is responsible for proving the facts supporting its claims or defences, and may submit documentation that supports their position and rebuts any counter-evidence produced by the other side.

If a party knows that the opposing side possesses documents relevant to the dispute, it may request the court to order their production, and the court may also require additional evidence at its discretion. Judges evaluate all evidence submitted, assessing its relevance, materiality, and admissibility, and must provide a detailed explanation of the reasoning behind their conclusions in the judgment. 

The Greek civil procedure does not provide for discovery mechanisms similar to those in common law systems. Evidence is primarily developed through the parties’ written pleadings, which must include all supporting documents. Where relevant documents are held by the opposing party or a third party, the court may order their production upon request, but there is no general obligation of disclosure.

Evidence is admitted through documentary evidence, affidavits, expert reports, and, in certain cases, oral testimony. The court also retains discretion to order additional evidentiary measures, such as expert opinions, or the submission of specific documents, to clarify matters essential to the dispute.

Greece recognises legal professional privilege, which protects confidential communications between lawyers and clients under the Lawyers’ Code, the Code of Conduct, the Criminal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure, and the GCCP. Lawyers may refuse to testify, and parties cannot be compelled to disclose privileged material.

Limited exceptions apply under Law 4557/2018 on anti–money laundering and counter-terrorist financing: privilege does not apply where the lawyer or notary participates in such offences, provides advice for their commission, or knows that the client seeks advice to facilitate them. Privilege extends to both external and in-house counsel.

Greek law allows parties to withhold documents in limited cases where disclosure would breach confidentiality obligations, reveal trade secrets, or violate statutory secrecy rules – such as banking, tax, or personal-data protections. Any refusal is subject to judicial review, with the court assessing the claim individually and weighing the document’s relevance against the necessity of safeguarding confidentiality.

In Greece, injunctive relief is available to prevent irreparable harm or to preserve rights pending the resolution of a dispute. The most common types of injunctions include preliminary injunctions to prevent an act or compel action, and asset freezing orders to secure potential claims. The court evaluates the urgency, likelihood of success on the merits, and potential harm to both parties before granting relief, with a degree of certainty.

In urgent cases, parties may request an injunction order, which remains in effect until a decision is rendered on the interim measures petition. Such requests are typically heard within two to six days, with the order issued within 24-48 hours of the hearing. To obtain an injunction order, the court must preliminarily assess the legal and substantive merits of the claim and determine that there is a significant and imminent risk to the subject matter of the dispute pending the main judgment. It is noted that, in these proceedings, the examination of witnesses is limited and, in most cases, prohibited by the judges.

In extreme urgency, the court may grant the order ex parte, without prior notice to the opposing party and without requiring their presence. This type of measure is primarily applied in maritime disputes, which are heard at the Piraeus Court of First Instance.

Ιn Greece, if an injunction or interim measure is later discharged or an action is dismissed as unfounded, the applicant is liable to compensate the respondent only if the applicant acted in bad faith or with gross negligence, being aware – or recklessly ignoring – that no such right existed. There is no automatic liability for damages caused by the execution of the interim measure. In certain cases, particularly for ex parte applications or where there is a significant risk of harm to the respondent, the court may require the applicant to provide a guarantee or deposit to cover potential damages, at the court’s discretion.

Under Greek law, injunctive or interim measures generally apply only to assets located in Greece, as there is no provision for a worldwide freezing order. A limited exception exists under EU Regulation 655/2014, which allows a European Account Preservation Order (EAPO) to temporarily freeze bank accounts in other EU Member States in cross-border civil or commercial disputes. The EAPO is issued by a Greek court and is directly enforceable abroad, providing a mechanism to affect non-domestic assets.

In some situations, injunctions can be directed at third parties who possess assets or have control over actions relevant to the dispute, in order to prevent the loss of assets, concealment of evidence, or avoidance of the court’s order. The party requesting the injunction must show that involving the third party is essential for the effectiveness of the relief. This may occur, for example, when a financial institution is asked to freeze a debtor’s funds in its custody or when garnishment is sought against a third party.

Failure to comply with an injunction in Greece may lead to contempt of court, including fines, asset seizure, or, in severe cases, imprisonment. The court can also order enforcement measures, such as direct execution on property or accounts, to secure compliance. Non-compliance may strengthen the applicant’s claim for damages resulting from the breach. In family law disputes, violating an interim order can result in up to one year of imprisonment or a monetary penalty.

In Greece, civil disputes are primarily conducted in writing, with parties submitting complaints, defences, evidence, and other pleadings in advance. Ordinary proceedings, including a fast-track system, rely on these written submissions, with hearings scheduled only after all pleadings are filed and oral advocacy or witness examination generally limited and only carried out under certain circumstances.

Special proceedings, which cover matters such as matrimonial disputes, lease-related property claims, labour disputes, and certain payment orders, involve oral hearings where parties present arguments, submit evidence, and examine witnesses or experts. While the process remains largely written, oral proceedings are essential in these contexts to resolve contested facts; judgments may be delivered immediately or reserved, depending on the complexity of the case.

In Greece, civil proceedings are primarily written, with parties submitting complaints, defences, and evidence in advance. Short hearings may take place for interim measures, where the court considers urgent requests and issues injunction orders. Greece does not have formal case management hearings; the court sets deadlines for pleadings and evidence, but does not hold separate pre-trial management sessions. Oral proceedings are reserved for the main hearing, where evidence is examined, arguments are presented, and the judgment is delivered.

Jury trials are not available in Greek civil courts. All civil disputes are decided by professional judges, either singly or in multi-member panels, depending on the court and the value or complexity of the case.

In Greek civil proceedings, evidence is primarily submitted in writing, including affidavits, as oral examinations are generally limited. Each party bears the burden of proving facts supporting its claims or defences, and only material, relevant, and lawfully obtained evidence is admissible. Documentary evidence must meet formal requirements, while public documents are presumed genuine and private documents must bear an uncontested signature.

The court freely assesses all evidence, including affidavits, expert reports, admissions, and property inspections, and may consider facts established beyond doubt, common knowledge, or previously determined in other cases. In exceptional circumstances, the court may order hearings for witness examination but generally relies on written submissions when determining the truth and reaching its judgment.

Expert testimony is a recognised form of evidence in Greek civil proceedings. The court may appoint one or more experts to clarify technical or specialised issues, particularly when highly specialised knowledge is required or requested by a party with written motion. Experts are selected from a court-maintained list, and parties may also appoint their own technical advisors to assist them who can provide opinions orally at hearings or in written reports rebutting expert testimonies.

Parties may submit independent expert reports even if the court has not ordered expert evidence, although such reports are not binding. All expert evidence is considered probative, and parties may comment on or challenge the findings during the proceedings.

Civil hearings in Greece are generally open to the public, promoting transparency in judicial proceedings. However, transcripts of hearings are not automatically published, and court decisions are typically accessible only to the parties and their legal representatives, or to third parties with a legitimate interest, unless intentionally released by the court for the purpose of creating jurisprudence or published by lawyers in legal journals. Judges may limit public access when necessary to safeguard privacy, protect sensitive information – such as in family law, labour disputes, or cases involving commercial secrets – or to prevent disclosure that could contravene public policy or accepted moral standards.

In ordinary proceedings, the process is largely written, based on the submission of pleadings and supporting evidence before the hearing. Oral arguments and witness examination are generally avoided and take place only under certain circumstances, and the judge’s involvement is relatively limited compared with special proceedings, which are primarily conducted orally.

In proceedings involving oral hearings, such as in special proceedings, Greek judges take a more proactive role. They may question witnesses, seek clarifications, direct the presentation of evidence, and oversee procedural matters. While civil judgments are usually reserved and issued in writing after deliberation, the court may render an immediate decision in urgent cases, such as interim measures, to address imminent risks and provide prompt relief.

Civil litigation in Greece follows a structured process, beginning with the filing of a writ that outlines the claimant’s arguments (factual and legal basis) and requested relief. The plaintiff must serve the writ upon the defendant within 30 days for domestic residents, or 60 days for foreign or unknown-residence parties. Both parties are then required to submit their briefs and supporting evidence within 120 days for domestic residents and 180 days for foreign or unknown-residence parties, with the option to file rebuttals.

Following this, the court schedules a hearing, typically 12-16 months later in commercial cases, where no oral advocacy or witness cross-examination occurs. Parties may submit a memorandum of new facts up to 20 days before the scheduled hearing, with the opposing party allowed a rebuttal up to 15 days prior.

After the hearing, the court deliberates and issues a judgment, which is generally required to be delivered within eight months, although delays are common, particularly in major cities. The judgment is formally served to the other party, usually by the most diligent litigant. Certain disputes, such as those in labour law, family law, or property leasing, are resolved more quickly, with hearings conducted orally and witness testimony presented directly before the court.       

Parties are generally free to dispose of their civil claims, which may be resolved through settlement, subject to limited exceptions. A settlement may be concluded before the court where the case is pending or before a notary public. A settlement concluded outside the pending proceedings, or without compliance with the formalities of Article 293 of the Code of Civil Procedure, constitutes an out-of-court settlement, which does not automatically terminate the proceedings. If one of the parties submits an out-of-court settlement before the court where the case is pending, the court must nevertheless issue a judgment reflecting and regulating the parties’ legal relationship in accordance with the terms of the settlement.

The terms of a settlement may remain confidential by mutual agreement of the parties.

Settlement Agreements concluded before the court are recorded in the official court minutes, which constitute an enforceable judicial title.

In the case of out-of-court settlements, the parties may, if they wish to secure enforceability, submit their agreement to the court for approval so that it acquires executory force.

A court settlement may be set aside only if one of the parties considers that it suffers from a substantive or procedural defect. In such a case, the party alleging the invalidity of the settlement schedules a new hearing and brings the case back before the court to resume the proceedings from the point at which they were discontinued. The validity of the court settlement is then examined incidentally within the resumed proceedings.

The forms of award available to a successful litigant may vary depending on the nature of the claim.

Under Greek civil procedure, three main types of judgments are recognised:

• performance judgment, whereby the court orders the defendant to perform, omit or tolerate a specific act;
• constitutive judgment, through which the court creates, modifies or terminates a legal relationship; and
• declaratory judgment, by which the court recognises the existence (or non-existence) of a legal right or relationship.

Under the principles of the Civil Code, the court is required to award only the actual loss proven by the claimant. Greek law does not recognise punitive damages, and there are no statutory rules limiting the maximum amount of damages that may be awarded.

In cases of non-pecuniary loss or moral harm, the court must grant reasonable compensation, considering the principle of proportionality and the circumstances of each case.

Pre-judgment interest concerns the period before a court judgment is issued and compensates the creditor for the time during which payment has been withheld. An obligation to pay interest may arise either from a contract (contractual interest) or directly under statutory provisions (statutory interest), and is calculated from the time the claim arises until full payment.

The most common form of statutory interest is default interest, which accrues when the debtor delays payment of a monetary obligation.

Even if the debtor is not in default, once the lawsuit is served, they become liable to pay legal (litigation) interest, which accrues from the date of service of the claim. This interest is set two percentage points above the statutory default rate.

Domestic judgments in Greece are automatically enforceable and do not require a separate recognition process. For enforcement measures, the successful party must obtain an enforceable copy of the judgment bearing the writ of execution. Enforcement is carried out through a court bailiff upon the creditor’s order, specifying the manner and, where applicable, the assets against which enforcement will be pursued.

Under the Brussels I Regulation, judgments issued by EU Member State courts are recognised and enforced in Greece without the need for a declaration of enforceability. The creditor must submit a certified copy of the judgment together with the standard certificate issued by the court of origin.

Judgments rendered in non-EU countries require exequatur (recognition and declaration of enforceability) by a competent Greek court before they can be enforced

As a general rule, all final judgments of the Court of First Instance are subject to appeal before the Court of Appeal.

A cassation appeal may be brought before the Supreme Court, which reviews only points of law arising from judgments rendered by the courts of first and second instance.

A party may lodge an appeal against a first-instance judgment if they have a legitimate interest and have been adversely affected by the decision. An appeal is available to any party that has been wholly or partially unsuccessful at first instance and alleges that the judgment involves an error of fact or law. The prevailing party may also appeal, but only to the extent that it demonstrates a lawful interest in doing so.

The time limit for filing an appeal is 30 days from the service of the judgment, or 60 days if the appellant resides abroad. If the judgment has not been served by either party, the appeal may be lodged within two years from the date of its publication.

Following the filing of an appeal and the scheduling of the hearing, the respondent may lodge and serve a counter-appeal up to 30 days before the hearing date, while the appellant may likewise file supplementary grounds of appeal within the same timeframe.

The grounds of appeal may concern an error of law or an incorrect evaluation of the evidence and facts presented before the Court of First Instance. Accordingly, the Court of Appeal may review both the legal and factual aspects of the case, but its examination is limited to the issues raised in the appeal grounds. Although the appellate process does not constitute a full re-hearing, the court may reassess the evidence and reach its own conclusions where appropriate. A rehearing of the case takes place only if one of the parties did not attend the proceedings before the Court of First Instance.

It is important to note that, in principle, litigants are not permitted to introduce new claims before the Court of Appeal.

Exceptions apply in limited circumstances, such as when:

• the respondent raises new allegations solely in defence to the appeal, provided that the factual or legal basis of the original claim remains unchanged;
• the new claims arose after the hearing before the court of first instance;
• the matters are of a kind that the court must consider ex officio or may be raised at any stage of the proceedings;
• the appellate court finds that the issues could not be raised earlier for justified reasons — this also applies to the objection of abuse of rights;
• the claims emerged for the first time subsequently; and
• the claims are proven in writing or through an in-court confession of the opposing party.

The court is not entitled to impose any conditions on the granting of an appeal.

The appellate court examines the admissibility of the appeal and evaluates its grounds. If the appeal is found to be both admissible and well-founded, the court renders a decision on the merits.

As a general rule, the losing party bears the costs of the proceedings, including the opponent’s lawyers’ fees, but only up to the statutory minimum — any excess amounts agreed privately between lawyers and clients are non-recoverable.

The main expenses in civil proceedings include court fees and lawyers’ fees, both of which are governed by statute. In practice, however, legal fees are generally subject to agreement between lawyer and client, provided that the agreed amount does not fall below the statutory minimum.

Court-related fees typically include:

• stamp duties; and
• proceedings fees.

The above may be recovered if the claimant prevails. An appeal or other legal remedy may not be brought solely in respect of the costs of proceedings, unless it also concerns the merits of the case.

Each party may include in its pleadings, submitted at the first hearing before the court, a list of expenses for which reimbursement is sought.

If such a list has been submitted and the court renders a final decision on all or part of the principal or incidental action, the court must include in its judgment a provision on the obligation to pay the costs, specifying the amount awarded.

If no list of expenses has been filed, but a request for costs has been made, the court shall nevertheless proceed to award costs on the basis of its assessment and may, where appropriate, offset them between the parties.

The allocation of litigation costs falls within the court’s discretion, including whether they are awarded in full or in part and whether they should be borne by the defeated party.

Upon issuance of the judgment, interest accrues on the entire amount awarded, including costs, and is calculated at the applicable statutory rate until full payment.

In Greece, most disputes are resolved through court litigation or direct negotiations between the parties, while arbitration and mediation remain less frequently used methods of dispute resolution. Nevertheless, in line with prevailing international trends, Law 4640/2019 has shifted mediation in Greece from a purely voluntary and informal mechanism into a more regulated process aimed at enhancing efficiency and conserving judicial resources.

Law 4640/2019 on mediation in civil and commercial disputes sets out the framework governing the conduct of mediation proceedings, which are carried out by certified mediators. The law requires that parties be informed about the mediation process before initiating court proceedings. In certain categories of cases, participation in a Mandatory Initial Mediation Session is established as a precondition to litigation. Beyond the obligation to attend the initial session (where required) and to be informed of the possibility of resolving the dispute through mediation, no additional sanctions or penalties are imposed if the parties choose not to proceed with ADR.

Key domestic ADR institutions include the Hellenic Centre of Mediation and Arbitration, the Athens Mediation and Arbitration Organization (EODID), and the Mediation General Committee, created under Law 4640/2019. Also, the ICC International Chamber of Commerce maintains a presence in Athens through its national committee. These bodies are well structured and adapted to recent legislative reforms, cooperating with internationally recognised mediators and arbitrators with expertise across diverse fields. They play an active role in ensuring efficient and fair dispute resolution and in strengthening Greece’s modern ADR landscape.

Arbitrations seated in Greece are mainly governed by Articles 867–903 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure, which set out the rules for the conduct of domestic arbitral proceedings. Furthermore, Law 5016/2023 established a modern legal framework consistent with international reforms in commercial arbitration, designed to accommodate the evolving features and practical requirements of this area of law.

With regard to the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards, Greece is a party to the 1958 New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, implemented through Legislative Decree No 4220/1961, which governs the procedure before Greek courts.

Under Article 867 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure, arbitration is available for private law disputes, provided that the rights in question may be freely disposed of by the parties. These include disputes governed by public law, labour disputes, and matters relating to family law.

An arbitral award may be annulled, in whole or in part, by a court judgment on the limited grounds expressly set out in Article 897 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure. In particular, annulment may be sought:

• if the arbitration agreement is invalid;
• if the award was rendered after the arbitration agreement ceased to be in force;
• if the arbitrators were appointed in breach of the arbitration agreement or the law, or if they had been revoked or disqualified and nevertheless proceeded to render the award;
• if the arbitrators acted beyond the powers conferred by the arbitration agreement or by law;
• if the procedural rules governing the arbitration were violated, particularly those concerning the right to be heard, equality of the parties, the deliberation process, or the form and content of the award;
• if the award is contrary to public policy or to accepted principles of morals;
• if the award is unintelligible or contains contradictory provisions; or
• if there are grounds for reopening the case (retrial) under Article 544 of the Code.

Under Greek law, an arbitral award rendered in Greece constitutes an enforceable title, allowing the prevailing party to initiate enforcement proceedings without the need for further judicial recognition.

With regard to the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards, the 1958 New York Convention applies. Greek courts are obliged to recognise foreign arbitral awards as binding and enforce them in accordance with the provisions of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure, provided that the requirements of the Convention are satisfied.

A foreign arbitral award will be recognised and declared enforceable in Greece if the following conditions are met:

• the foreign arbitral tribunal or court had proper international jurisdiction;
• the losing party was not deprived of the right to a defence;
• no conflicting final judgment on the same dispute has been rendered by a Greek court;
• the award is enforceable and final under the law of the country of origin; and
• its content is not contrary to Greek public policy or to accepted principles of morals.

On 28 July 2025, Law 5221/2025 was published in the Government Gazette (Issue A’ 133/28.07.2025). The Law introduces key reforms to the Civil Procedure Code, aimed at accelerating the delivery of justice in the Greek courts through targeted legislative measures. Most of its provisions will enter into force on 1 January 2026.

In recent years, Greece has seen a gradual increase in commercial disputes, driven by growing investment activity, infrastructure development, and expansion in the energy, construction, financial, and technology sectors. Technology-related disputes, particularly those involving data protection, fintech, digital platforms, and intellectual property, are also becoming more frequent, reflecting the digital transformation of the Greek economy.

However, the use of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, such as arbitration and mediation, remains relatively limited. Progress in this area has been cautious over the past decade, and judicial decisions addressing ADR issues are still relatively rare, often arising from cross-border or international disputes.