Banking & Finance 2023 Comparisons

The Croatian National Bank (CNB) has reported that its monetary policy was primarily focused on preparing for the introduction of the euro, which significantly reduced the effects of external shocks on the domestic financial market. As a result, the adjustment of monetary policy instruments led to historically high levels of liquidity in the banking system, effectively lessening the transmission of tighter funding conditions prompted by the ECB’s monetary policy. Despite experiencing a gradual rise in loan interest rates and stricter standards, banks demonstrated remarkably strong lending activity in 2022, leading to a significant acceleration in credit growth on an annual basis.

Furthermore, the CNB has reported that interest rates on loans to non-financial corporations experienced a more significant increase compared to loans to households. Interest rates on first-time loans to households remained around 4%, corresponding to the average level in 2021. On the other hand, in December 2022, interest rates on first-time loans to corporations reached 3.2%, reaching the highest level since 2017.

The average interest rates on housing loans were around 2.5%, while the interest rates on non-purpose cash loans were around 5.4%. A comparable trend was seen in passive interest rates, as interest rates on corporate deposits increased from about 0% in 2021 to roughly 0.9% by December 2022, while interest rates on household deposits remained almost steady during this period.

It has been reported by the CNB that throughout 2022, the world's financial markets experienced heightened geopolitical uncertainties due to the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, coupled with a gradual tightening of monetary policies by central banks worldwide in response to soaring inflation rates. Volatility on financial markets has risen, accompanied by a decline in the values of major stock and bond indices, as well as an increase in borrowing costs.

The normalisation of the ECB's monetary policy in 2022 had a restricted impact on financing conditions in Croatia, with noticeable increases in the borrowing costs for the government and non-financial companies. The values of the stock and bond indices on the Zagreb Stock Exchange decreased, while the foreign exchange market stabilised, reflecting the certainty of the introduction of the euro as the official currency. During this period, the assessed stress on the domestic financial markets remained at relatively low levels. During 2022 the performance of non-financial companies rebounded, while the number of businesses in Croatia experienced the highest growth in the past five years, despite an increased number of company exits from the market. Simultaneously, the rise in prices of raw materials, particularly energy resources, driven by strong demand, prompted heightened borrowing within the business sector to finance operational needs, especially within the energy sector. With the gradual increase in variable interest rates for loans, the burden of debt repayment for the corporate sector slightly rose, yet it remained at a low level, considering the relatively high proportion of fixed-rate loans.

The increase in interest rates on loans with variable interest rates stands out as a risk to the ability of households to service debt. An additional contribution to this risk arises from rising living costs that concurrently erode savings, thereby reducing households' resilience to potential adverse economic shocks. This could particularly impact the most vulnerable households’ segment, which already allocate a relatively high portion of their income to living expenses and loan repayments.

Strong domestic demand, supported by, inter alia, government subsidy programmes, alongside foreign citizens' demand in coastal parts of Croatia, within the context of limited property supply and increasing construction costs, have influenced the acceleration of the housing price growth.

The high-yield market remains relatively modest, as the credit institutions retain their dominant position in the financing market in Croatia.

At the end of October 2021, the value of projects contracted through European Structural and Investment Funds (ESI Funds) was EUR13.19 billion – ie, 122.88% of the allocated funds for the financial period 2014–2020. Furthermore, a Cohesion Policy has been introduced in the EU for the financial period 2021–2027, under which numerous EU Funds have been established with a purpose of financing various projects within said period. Funds allocated to the Republic of Croatia for the financial period 2021–2027 in current prices amount to more than EUR14 billion from the EU's Multiannual Financial Framework and slightly more than EUR11 billion from the NextGenerationEU economic recovery package.

Furthermore, during a plenary session held on 23 November 2020, the Members of the European Parliament approved assistance to Croatia from the European Solidarity Fund for the mitigating of the consequences of the devastating earthquake that struck Zagreb on 22 March 2020 in the amount of EUR683.7 million. On 7 July 2022, the government of the Republic of Croatia adopted an amendment to the decision on the distribution method of non-repayable financial resources from the European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF), approved for financing earthquake damage repair. As a result, by 9 June 2023, all funds from EUSF for earthquake consequence mitigation had been utilised.

The portion of financing through crowdfunding still remains minor, although it has played a more significant role in the last two to three years. Most of the biggest crowdfunding platforms have gone from the region, with only the smaller or local ones remaining active.

The Zagreb Stock Exchange Progress Market was registered at the beginning of 2019 and is a multilateral trading facility that may be used by SMEs in order to achieve the implementation of their investment plans. The year 2022 brought only two listings of shares on the Progress Market and six listings resulting from recapitalisation as well as the listing of five bonds. A special novelty on the market was the listing of the first "green" bond.

To a great extent, Croatian corporate borrowers rely on financing by local banks and their parent banks, and in the case of financing of larger projects, financing by bank syndicates that often include one or two local banks in addition to the international banks. In the past few years, it has become more common for local banks to also act as security agents. Financing transactions that include international banks is usually based on complex loan documentation governed by foreign law (usually English law) that comply with the Loan Market Association standards, while the loans granted by local banks are usually subject to much simpler documentation governed by Croatian law and such transactions are very often handled by the local banks in-house.

Supporting the goals of the European Union, the Republic of Croatia stipulates in its National Development Strategy that in the next ten years it will direct national and European funding towards the following:

• promoting a sustainable economy and society;
• recovering from and strengthening resilience to crises;
• green and digital transitions; and
• balanced regional development.

The financial industry has a key role in achieving these goals at the local and global level, in directing capital flows towards sustainable investments – ie, investments that support the goals of sustainable development.

However, in practice, there have been challenges in determining which investments can be considered investments in sustainable development and to what extent, as well as challenges in preventing investment in entities that use manipulative green marketing (so-called greenwashing). The main problem for the financial industry is the harmonisation of various ESG reporting standards, definitions and processes developed by numerous participants in the financial markets and rating agencies.

In March 2021 the Croatian Financial Services Supervisory Agency (Hanfa) published guidelines for the preparation and announcement of ESG relevant information for issuers, with the aim of enabling the uniform treatment of all issuers on the Croatian market so that the stated information is comparable, reliable and understandable.

The guidelines indicate how to meet the obligations under the Taxonomy Regulation in the transitional period and the extent of ESG indicators that issuers can report to ensure the necessary transparency towards financial market participants, financial advisers who are required to apply the Sustainable Finance Disclosure Regulation, ESG rating agencies, suppliers and others.

Pursuant to the Croatian Credit Institutions Act, banks and financial institutions must do the following in order to be authorised to provide financing in the territory of Croatia:

• obtain a licence to provide financial services (for a Croatian-based credit institution or a Croatian branch of a credit or financial institution based in the EU, European Economic Area (EEA) or a third country) and register with the court; or
• directly render mutually recognised financial services (in the case of an EU or EEA-based credit and financial institution) on the basis of a “passport” notification to the CNB, provided such services are not rendered on a regular, frequent or ongoing basis.

In addition, under Croatian law and pursuant to the views of the CNB, if a lender’s activities are not effectively carried out in the territory of Croatia (but rather on a cross-border basis or on the basis of consumption abroad), the lender (either a bank or financial institution) should be able to provide financing to a Croatian entity, but would then need to make sure that:

• the loan agreement is not executed in Croatia;
• the offer to finance a Croatian borrower is not made in Croatia (including via the international lender’s representative, agent or similar); and
• the offer to finance a Croatian borrower is given on a reverse inquiry basis.

In Croatia, financing can also be granted by other legal and natural persons without any special licence, provided that such activity is not considered to be the business activity of the relevant entity.

In principle, foreign lenders are not restricted in granting loans, provided that the lending activities are pursued in a manner as described under 2.1 Providing Financing to a Company and, particularly in relation to cross-border lending, that, inter alia, a loan agreement is either executed by both parties outside Croatia or is at least executed by distant means of communication, without the lender’s personnel, agent or similar being present in Croatia, and (pursuant to the views of the CNB) that the financing is based on reverse solicitation by the borrower.

Taking into account the recent ECJ decision and considering that the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Croatia has repealed the Act on Nullity of Loans with an International Element Concluded in the Republic of Croatia by its decision dated 3 November 2020, lending by EU lenders should not be considered problematic. However, lenders should be aware that consumer loan debtors are still protected by the Consumer Credit Act in proceedings on the nullity of loan agreements involving unauthorised creditors and/or unauthorised credit agents.

There are no particular restrictions or impediments on granting security or guarantees to foreign lenders, noting however that a foreign lender needs to obtain a personal identification number (OIB) in order to be registered as a holder of any security interest in any Croatian register. Please see 3.3 Restrictions and Controls on Foreign Currency Exchange.

Pursuant to the Foreign Exchange Act, when a resident grants a loan or issues a guarantee for the benefit of a non-resident, it must obtain some form of adequate security or collateral in return, in order to secure repayment. Failure to do so represents a misdemeanour, and the respective resident may be fined.

Croatia joined the euro area on 1 January 2023 and the fixed conversion rate was HRK7.53450 for EUR1. The introduction of the euro has eliminated foreign exchange risk and the costs of exchange rate fluctuations in euro transactions with Croatian entities.

The transfer abroad by a non-resident of a profit arising from direct investment is free, under the condition that the applicable profit tax is paid in the Republic of Croatia.

A borrower’s use of proceeds from loans and debt securities should be in line with the conditions set out in the respective loan agreement or prospectus. The effects of a failure to comply depend on the contractual arrangements and/or the generally applicable rules on obligations. The failure of an issuer of debt securities to use the respective proceeds in line with the purpose specified in the prospectus may lead to the liability of an issuer and some other persons for damage caused to the investor by the fact that the information that is relevant to the valuation of the debt securities is incorrect or incomplete, if such incorrect or incomplete information in the prospectus is their fault. The issuer and its responsible persons may also be fined if the prospectus does not contain the correct and complete information prescribed by the applicable laws and regulations.

The concepts of agent and trust are generally not recognised in Croatian law, as the holder of a security interest simultaneously has to be a creditor of the respective secured claim.

In cases where more creditors are envisaged, a secured party is usually a security trustee or a security agent holding the respective security; however, given that under Croatian law (as the governing law for the security interests to be registered in Croatian registries) the security interest is an accessory to the claim it secures and thus has to remain with the creditor and cannot be held by an agent/trustee, for years now this has been resolved in relevant transactions by way of a so-called parallel debt or joint creditor relationship, governed by English law (or another applicable law that recognises such concept), which are concepts that are also used in various other European jurisdictions to deal with the same issues.

Pursuant to the Croatian Code of Obligations, any receivable is assignable, unless the assignment of such receivable is proscribed by law or the receivable is strictly personal or, by its nature, controversial to the assignment. Furthermore, the assignment contract will have no effect towards the obligor (ie, the borrower) if the underlying contract between the lender and the borrower prohibits the transferability of the receivables.

After the execution of the assignment agreement, the borrower should, in principle, be notified by the original or new lender of the assignment and the fact that the new lender is now the creditor of the receivables, although this is not a precondition for the effectiveness of the assignment. In the case of assignment, together with the claim being transferred, accessory rights are automatically transferred to the new lender (security instruments, rights to interest, etc), noting, however, that the transfer of the respective security interests registered in various registries should be registered therein and that the formal (and notarised) consent of the transferring lender is required.

It should be noted that the assignee should have the same legal position towards the debtor as was previously held by the assignor.

If there is a need to transfer the whole contractual relationship between the original lender and the borrower to the new lender, the loan agreement must be transferred, and the borrower needs to consent to such transfer, noting that such consent may already be given in advance in the relevant loan agreement (in which case only notification to the borrower is required for the transfer of the loan agreement) or may need to be obtained at the time of the transfer as a condition for the effectiveness of such transfer.

Pursuant to the Consumer Credit Act, subject to certain exceptions, there is an obligation for the original lender to notify the borrower about the assignment of rights. The consent of the borrower of the assigned receivables for the assignment thereof may be needed only if it is so prescribed by the respective loan agreement.

Pursuant to the relevant regulations of the CNB, the originator is obliged to report a change of the creditor of the assigned receivable to the CNB if the new creditor is a non-resident, provided that the respective resident debtor is not made aware of such change in the creditor.

The transfer of rights and benefits from a contract needs to be exercised in accordance with the applicable data protection and GDPR-related regulations.

Special rules may apply in certain cases of transfer – for example, if the receivables are secured by a state guarantee, prior written consent from the Minister of Finance is required in order for the relevant transfer to be effective.

Debt buy-back is permitted by Croatian law and would generally result in the relevant debt ceasing to exist ex lege due to confusion (if the debt purchase is by the borrower). Acquisition of the debt by an affiliated entity may result in the application of thin capitalisation rules and/or rules on loans in lieu of the capital, which may have unwanted effects for such lender, particularly in the context of the potential (pre)bankruptcy of the borrower.

Croatian law imposes a duty to negotiate in good faith. Subject to the circumstances listed below in the context of takeover bids, there is no legal or regulatory requirement to provide a “certain funds” confirmation, and such concept is used in acquisition transactions only if it is negotiated by the relevant parties. Therefore, what constitutes “certain funds” differs between transactions.

In certain acquisitions of shares in a public limited company (PLC) with a registered office in Croatia, whose voting shares are admitted to trading on a regulated market in Croatia or another EEA country, or the acquisition of shares in a PLC whose registered office is in another EEA country and whose voting shares are admitted to trading on a regulated market in an EEA country, when the takeover bid is published, the bidder is obliged to ensure the availability of the necessary funds for the payment for all outstanding target company shares by way of making a cash deposit on a separate account held by the Central Clearing and Depository Company, or obtaining an irrevocable and unconditional bank guarantee payable on first demand.       

As mentioned above, Croatia joined the euro area on 1 January 2023 and the fixed conversion rate was HRK7.53450 for EUR1. The introduction of the euro has eliminated foreign exchange risk in euro transactions with Croatian entities and, subsequently, the financing documents had to be amended by way of omitting the standard provisions for dealing with foreign currency matters and exchange rates.

The introduction of the euro does not affect the validity of existing contracts and other legal instruments expressed in Croatian kuna, and, generally speaking, it has therefore not been necessary to sign addenda to existing contracts and other legal instruments.

Currently, the rate of contractual interest between merchants may not exceed 21% per annum, and the rate of contractual interest in contracts involving non-merchant parties may not exceed 10.5% per annum, noting also that the effective interest rate in consumer loans cannot exceed 9% per annum and in consumer housing loans 7% per annum.

The default interest rate payable on due but unpaid amounts arising from contracts between merchants is currently 12% per annum, while for contracts involving non-merchant parties it is currently 7% per annum. The default interest rate may be contracted differently, with a maximum interest rate not exceeding the prescribed maximum rates (21% for contracts between merchants and 10.5% for contracts involving non-merchant parties).

As of 31 December 2022, the arm’s length interest rate on loans between related parties for purposes of the corporate profit tax is 2.4% per annum.

The Act on the Right to Information Access is the primary act that prescribes which types of information and documents public authorities are required to publish on their websites to achieve financial transparency. For example, public authorities are obliged to disclose information about their source of funding, their budget, financial plan, or other relevant documents that determine their revenues and expenditures, as well as information and reports on budget execution. This also includes information about grants, sponsorships, donations, or other forms of assistance, including a list of beneficiaries and the amounts involved. Other regulations that deal with publication of financial documents include the Budget Act, the Public Procurement Act, the Accounting Act and the Act on Financial Operations and Accounting of Non-profit Organisations.

Pursuant to the Croatian Profit Tax Act, withholding tax (15% in principle and 10% for dividends) is levied on profits generated by a non-resident in Croatia and is charged on, inter alia, interest and dividends, copyright and other intellectual property rights, etc, paid to foreign entities that are not physical persons.

The withholding tax is not payable on:

• interest paid in relation to loans granted by foreign banks or other financial institutions;
• interest paid to foreign persons holding sovereign or corporate bonds; and
• interest paid in relation to commodity loans for the purchase of goods that are used by the taxpayer to carry on its business.

Subject to the stipulations in 4.1 Withholding Tax, no stamp, registration or similar duty or tax is payable in the Republic of Croatia in respect of loan agreements and related security documents, apart from the fees and stamp duties for the solemnisation/notarisation of the Croatian law security and other documents being notarised and other related notary public actions and documents, and the stamp duties and/or fees payable for the registration of the security interest over the security assets in the competent registry.

When it comes to foreign lenders and non-money centre bank lenders, apart from withholding tax (please see 4.1 Withholding Tax), certain additional potential tax considerations, such as thin capitalisation rules, transfer pricing, permanent establishment (PE) and foreign exchange control regulations shall be taken into account.

Thin capitalisation rules aim to limit the amount of interest deduction that a company can claim on loans from related parties. Therefore, a Croatian profit tax obligor is obliged to increase the income tax base for interest on loans received from a shareholder holding at least 25% of the shares or voting rights if, at any time during the tax period, those loans exceed four times the amount of the shares of that shareholder (in capital or voting rights) determined in relation to the amount and duration of the loans in the tax period (interest on loans granted by financial institutions are excluded). Under Croatian law, loans from third parties guaranteed by a shareholder and loans from affiliated entities are also considered shareholder loans. Additionally, interest expenses on loans between related companies is deductible up to the amount prescribed by the Ministry of Finance, as calculated and published by the CNB (in 2023, 2.4%). The Croatian Profit Tax Act also stipulates that interest costs and other costs of borrowing on loans received are tax deductible up to an amount of EUR3 million or 30% of profit before interest, taxes and depreciation (EBITDA), depending on whichever is higher. Therefore, when determining tax-deductible interest expenses, both the interest rate and the absolute amount must be considered. As these rules apply also to loans granted by foreign lenders, it is advisable to structure loans in a way that complies with such rules.

When it comes to transfer pricing, if the terms of the loan (interest rates, repayment terms, etc) are not in line with arm's length principles, Croatian tax authorities might adjust the transaction to reflect fair market value, impacting the deductibility of interest payments. Ensuring that the terms of the loan are well-documented and comply with arm’s length principles can help mitigate transfer pricing risks.

Moreover, having a significant presence of a foreign lender in Croatia could potentially create a permanent establishment, leading to taxation of profits attributed to that establishment. Therefore, if, after a careful analysis, it transpires that the activities of a foreign lender could give rise to a permanent establishment, a potential strategy for alleviation should involve structuring the lending arrangement in a manner that mitigates such risks.

Security interests that have in rem effect are most commonly used in practice.

A security interest may be granted in the form of a pledge (or a mortgage in the case of real estate, a ship or an aircraft) or in the form of a fiduciary transfer of ownership of the relevant asset. There is also a possibility to enter into financial collateral arrangements. The pledge is a commonly used security instrument for various objects, including movables, shares, bank accounts, claims and intellectual property rights, as well as any other right that is subject to the same legal regime applied to the movables.

Pledges

A pledge may be established as a registered or non-registered pledge.

A registered pledge may be granted through a security agreement executed before a court or before a notary public, and in each case followed by the registration of the pledge in the competent registry, or in the depository operated by the Central Depository & Clearing Company’s registry for dematerialised shares in the share capital of a public limited company.

Generally, full perfection of the registered pledge takes place after the decision on the entry of the security interest in the registry becomes final, at which point it is deemed that the security interest has been created retroactively – ie, from the date of submission of the registration application.

In the case of a non-registered pledge, the creation of the respective security interest remains outside of the public domain, which represents a risk and is certainly less beneficial to the secured creditor.

In relation to the pledge of claims, the secured creditors commonly require the granting of the pledge to be notified to the counterparty(ies) (ie, the debtors of the pledged claims), and require the counterparty(ies) (if at all possible) to acknowledge the receipt of the notification and confirm they would act in accordance with the instructions given in the notice of pledge. As mentioned under 3.6 Loan Transfer Mechanisms, taking security over the receivables owed by the state requires prior written consent from the Minister of Finance.

Fees

The fee for the registration of the collateral in the registry is approximately EUR40 per application, and it takes around eight days for a pledge to be registered.

The notary public’s fees, duties and costs related to the granting of the security interest (provided the document is solemnised – ie, notarised as to content) depend on the amount of the secured claim.

Mortgages

A mortgage over real estate is created upon the entry thereof into the land registry of the competent court and is commonly used as a security interest. When it comes to mortgages (as well as any registered pledge), the principle of “first in time, first in right” applies.

The fee for the registration of the mortgage in the land registry is approximately EUR35 (no stamp duty is payable if registration is made based on a solemnised agreement), whilst the public notary’s fees and duties are determined under the same rules as for the pledge.

Fiduciary Transfer of Ownership

A fiduciary transfer of ownership enables the secured creditor to become a fiduciary owner of the relevant assets, and to become a full owner thereof under certain conditions.

However, due to certain historical controversy, this type of security interest has not been seen in practice very often in the past ten years and, thus, is generally not recommendable.

Financial collateral arrangements were introduced into Croatian law via the Financial Collateral Law (FCL), which was adopted in 2007.

It is necessary to have evidence of the execution of the respective agreement and the delivery/acquisition of the collateral either in writing or in a durable electronic medium. The financial collateral is considered delivered/acquired once the title transfer or creation of a special pledge over the financial collateral is noted on the relevant account with the registry of financial instruments (in the case of securities collateral) or at the relevant bank account (in the case of cash collateral).

Analysis of the FCL reveals that uncertainty persists over the material scope of its application, as well as the definition of crucial terms, even at a rather basic level.

Information on the existence and/or scope of such arrangements is limited to contractual relationships between the parties; there is no reliable and complete publicly available information on the scope of such arrangements and the impact of their implementation on business practice.

The Croatian legal system recognises a floating pledge as a contractually created registered pledge of movables of all kind or movables of a specific kind (goods, inventory, spare parts, furniture, tools, etc), located in a specific place (eg, warehouse, factory, business premises) otherwise owned or leased by the debtor.

The main characteristic of the floating pledge is that a debtor (the owner of the relevant movables) retains control over the assets – ie, the debtor continues to be entitled to dispose of the movables subject to the floating pledge and a person who acquires the possession of such movables acquires it free of encumbrances (ie, free of floating pledges) as the floating pledge ceases to exist by the mere taking of the relevant movables out of the specific place/area. It should be noted that the provisions of the relevant law impose an obligation on the debtor to substitute the assets disposed with new ones in accordance with the nature of its business operations (unless that obligation is contractually excluded). Ultimately, the rights of the pledgee may be heavily affected if the debtor fails to act accordingly and effectively substitute the relevant assets promptly.

If the secured creditor initiates enforcement proceedings on the basis of the floating pledge, the relevant enforcement will effectively include all movables of a described type (vehicles, machinery, raw material, etc) found in the specific place/area set out in the pledge agreement at the moment the seizure list is created (in the course of enforcement proceedings).

When granting any type of guarantee to foreign legal entities, Croatian companies must comply with certain additional obligations under the Croatian Foreign Exchange Act – please see 3.3 Restrictions and Controls on Foreign Currency Exchange. In addition, pursuant to the Bankruptcy Act, if the appropriate security (or other type of consideration) is not provided to a guarantor, a guarantee may be considered to be of no value or no considerable value, and may be voided upon the insolvency of the respective guarantor.

Also, when granting guarantees, Croatian legal entities need to take the applicable capital maintenance rule contained in the Croatian Companies Act (CA) into consideration, as any support in whatever form from a company for the debt of the shareholder or its affiliated companies/subsidiaries may also be considered as being contrary to the applicable capital maintenance rules, pursuant to which a company is generally not allowed to repay the paid-in capital to its shareholders (Article 217 of the CA).

According to Article 406 of the CA, shareholders are not entitled to request repayment from a company of their contribution to the share capital and, according to Article 407 of the CA, payments made to a shareholder from the company’s assets that would be equal to the value of the company’s share capital are not allowed. If the shareholder would receive a payment contrary to the rules prescribed by the CA, the company’s articles of association or shareholder resolutions, such payment would be considered to be contrary to the capital maintenance rules, and the shareholder(s) would be obliged to return the payments made by the company.

If it is not possible to collect such prohibited payment that has reduced the value of the company’s share capital, either from the shareholder(s) who received it or from the management board, other shareholder(s) shall be jointly liable for the decrease in the company’s share capital, in proportion to their basic shares in the company, provided such funds are necessary for settling the creditor(s). Such request from the company becomes statute-barred five years after the receipt of such payment constituting a breach of the capital maintenance rules, unless the company can prove that the shareholder who received the payment knew it was not permitted.

Namely, the distribution of assets to shareholders outside of the regular distribution of profits is not allowed, so any potential subsequent payment by the company to the creditor on the account of the company’s co-debtorship/security provided for the debts of its shareholder or its affiliated companies/subsidiaries may be construed as a breach of the applicable capital maintenance rules and thus as a prohibited payment. In practice, the respective guarantees often contain guarantee limitation wording specifying that the obligations and liabilities under the guarantee granted by a guarantor shall not include any liability to the extent it would result in payments made to the shareholders being considered contrary to the relevant provisions of the CA.

Subject to certain exceptions, the CA does not allow a target that is a Croatian PLC to support the acquisition of shares therein with the assets of that target. The consequence of any legal transaction that would be qualified as prohibited support is that the respective security interest would be considered null and void. If the respective financing transaction includes both the actual financing of the acquisition of shares in the target and other financing of the target, it is necessary for the acquisition financing facility to be separated from such other facility(ies), and for any security granted by the target to not relate to such acquisition financing.

While the aforementioned restriction is not prescribed for LLCs, the capital maintenance rules apply to both types of company.

Besides the restrictions noted in 5.4 Restrictions on Target, actions like the granting of security, the issuing of a guarantee, the repayment of a loan and others may be subject to claw-back provisions contained in the Croatian Bankruptcy Act, which prescribes the conditions under which the bankruptcy administrator and bankruptcy creditors are entitled to challenge certain legal actions of a bankruptcy debtor taken during the prescribed hardening period before the opening of the (pre)bankruptcy proceedings if such actions are deemed to disrupt the right of the balanced settlement of the bankruptcy creditors, or are taken in favour of certain bankruptcy creditors. The hardening periods vary between one month and ten years.

Upon the repayment of the secured claim, a security release statement must be issued by the secured creditor in order for the deregistration of the mortgage and registered pledge to occur; this statement has to be notarised before the notary public, and the relevant deregistration application needs to be submitted to the competent registry and approved thereby.

The principle of “first in time, first in right” applies equally to a mortgage and a registered pledge.

Contractual subordination of certain claims is generally possible, but creditors entering into intercreditor arrangements and agreeing on different priority between different groups of lenders should not assume the insolvency court or the bankruptcy administrator would act in accordance with such contractual arrangements and distribute the respective proceeds according to the agreed waterfall provisions; instead, they should rely on the effectiveness of the relevant distribution provisions inter partes and outside of the bankruptcy/enforcement proceeding.

In the Croatian legal system, certain security interests can arise by operation of law and those might take priority over a lender's security interest and, in that way, affect the lender's position in the case of a borrower’s default.

For example, employees have a statutory lien over their employer's assets for unpaid wages and severance pay. Also, tax claims and claims of certain public authorities, as well as judicial liens resulting from court judgments, might take priority over the lender’s security interests. Therefore, lenders should conduct thorough due diligence to identify existing priming liens, while borrowers should take steps to address any outstanding preferential claims before entering into financing arrangements. Usually, finance documents contain appropriate representations and warranties of the borrowers dealing with potential preferential claims.

Security interests may generally be enforced upon a default that leads to the occurrence of a payment default that remains unremedied. Depending on the type of security interest and security assets, and on the type of underlying obligation, and in each case subject to the contractual arrangements, enforcement may be conducted both out-of-court and before the court (eg, in the case of shares, claims, accounts, movables, etc) or solely in the enforcement procedure run by the court (eg, real estate). In each case, a proper enforcement title needs to be in place in order for the enforcement to be initiated, so it is market practice for a security document to be executed in the form of a notarial deed containing an appropriate enforcement clause allowing for direct enforcement (provided the contracted conditions are met), that way allowing the secured creditor to avoid having to obtain first a final and enforceable ruling from a competent authority and instead enabling the secured creditor to directly start the relevant enforcement proceeding (out-of-court or before the court).

The Private International Law Act came into force in 2019. As it completely adopts Regulation (EC) No 593/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on the law applicable to contractual obligations (Rome I), it recognises the choice of foreign law to govern a contract containing an international element and involving a Croatian party (and any contractual obligations connected with such contract) as being effective on such Croatian party, and the choice of foreign law as the governing law of the relevant contract would generally be upheld as a valid choice by the courts of Croatia, subject to certain exceptions.

If the relevant foreign law-governed contract does not have an international element, it can still be governed by foreign law, but would remain subject to the mandatory rules of Croatian law. The Croatian courts may not uphold the choice of foreign law if the application of such law would result in an obvious violation of the Croatian public policy rules. Additionally, the Croatian courts may apply a provision of Croatian law that is considered to be of such high importance for the protection of the Croatian public interest that it is applicable to all situations that fall within its field of application, regardless of the law otherwise applicable.

Generally, provisions in a contract that provide for the submission by a Croatian party to a foreign court are valid, binding and enforceable on such Croatian party under the laws of the Republic of Croatia, to the extent that there is no exclusive competence of the Croatian court or other Croatian competent authority, and provided that at least one party in the dispute is an entity with a registered office outside the Republic of Croatia, or that another acceptable international element exists in relation to such dispute.

Waivers of immunity provisions are generally binding (unless otherwise prescribed by Croatian law) – ie, generally, all assets are available for enforcement unless they are indispensable to the performance of the party’s activities and enforcement would result in the discontinuation of the party’s business; such limitations do not apply in relation to the assets if the relevant entity explicitly agreed to the creation of the security interests over said assets. Special restrictions apply to the immunity applicable to the assets of the Republic of Croatia and local self-government (municipalities, cities and counties and their bodies).

Different rules apply, depending on whether a judgment was given by the court of an EU or non-EU member state:

• recognition of a judgment given by a court of an EU member state is regulated by Regulation (EU) no 1215/2012 (Brussels I); and
• recognition of a judgment given by a court of a non-EU member state is regulated by the Croatian conflict of law rules; subject to certain exceptions, such judgments will be recognised and enforced in the Republic of Croatia.

An award of an arbitral tribunal seated in a jurisdiction that is a signatory to the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York, 1958 – the New York Convention) may be recognised and enforced in the Republic of Croatia by the Croatian courts, in accordance with the provisions of the New York Convention.

In a legal proceeding before a Croatian court, any relevant document that is in a language other than Croatian would have to be translated by a certified court interpreter into Croatian in order to become admissible in evidence in Croatia.

Under Croatian law, a creditor may be required to post security for the costs of the debtor (unless said creditor is domiciled in the EU). When it comes to loans with an international element, consumer loan debtors are protected by the Consumer Credit Act in proceedings on the nullity of loan agreements involving unauthorised creditors and/or credit agents.

Once the bankruptcy proceeding has been opened, all creditors’ claims towards the bankruptcy debtor become due. Creditors should report their claims to the bankruptcy administrator, and such claims may only be settled through the bankruptcy proceeding. All rights, authorisations and obligations of the debtor’s corporate bodies, such as authorisations of the management board, etc, shall pass on to the bankruptcy administrator, who becomes authorised to represent the company and administer the bankruptcy estate. All assets of the bankruptcy debtor existing at the time of opening the bankruptcy proceeding form the bankruptcy debtor’s bankruptcy estate.

The aforementioned is generally without prejudice to the rights of the creditors with the right to separate satisfaction (such as holders of pledges and mortgages) generally preserve their rights to separate satisfaction directly from the respective security assets.

Pursuant to the Croatian Bankruptcy Act, creditors are classified into payment ranks in the bankruptcy proceeding. The claims of creditors of a lower payment rank can only be settled after the creditors of the higher payment rank have been fully settled.

Within the same payment rank, creditors’ claims are settled pro rata.

The first ranking claims include employees’ and competent authorities’ claims arising out of an employment relationship, such as salaries, contributions and related tax. All other claims against the bankruptcy debtor are considered claims of the second higher rank, unless they have been classified into a lower payment rank.

As mentioned above, creditors with the right to separate satisfaction (such as holders of pledges and mortgages) generally preserve their rights to separate satisfaction directly from the respective security assets.

The insolvency proceedings and their outcomes can vary widely depending on the complexity of the case, the specific circumstances of the bankrupt company, and the efficiency of the legal and administrative systems in place.

According to the Ministry of Justice and Administration Statistical overview of the work of the courts for the year 2022 in relation to the commercial courts being in charge of bankruptcy proceedings, it appears that, formally speaking, the resolution time for such a proceeding was 238 days in 2022 and the duration appears to have decreased in comparison to the previous year. However, that data is merely an average of the duration of the bankruptcy proceedings, which appears to be quite short and efficient, but only as a result of the fact that a significant number of bankruptcy proceedings are closed immediately after being opened as a result of a lack of any assets owned by the relevant bankruptcy debtor which could be used to settle the creditors.

In reality, bankruptcy proceedings for the insolvent operating companies with assets and ongoing business tend to last for years.

There is no official data on the recovery rate but generally, the average recovery rate for bankruptcy (unsecured) creditors appears to be quite low (around 35%, according to the World Bank Doing Business 2020) and significantly below EU average.

Under the Croatian Bankruptcy Act, the restructuring of companies outside of bankruptcy proceedings is possible through the pre-bankruptcy proceeding. Croatian law also recognises the restructuring of companies through the bankruptcy proceeding, either via the bankruptcy plan, which is most commonly seen in practice, or, on an exceptional basis, through a self-administration proceeding within the bankruptcy proceeding.

Pre-bankruptcy

Generally, the most common method of voluntary reorganisation is through pre-bankruptcy. The debtor can initiate pre-bankruptcy proceedings if it is considered imminently insolvent.

Pre-bankruptcy is effectively always voluntary, as it is initiated directly by the debtor. Such procedure was introduced into Croatian legislation with the purpose of allowing the restructuring of illiquid companies with a business perspective, but without initiating a rather ineffective, long-lasting bankruptcy procedure carried out by a bankruptcy manager. Unlike the bankruptcy procedure, in the pre-bankruptcy procedure the company is run by the management appointed by the shareholders.

The essential legal effects of opening pre-bankruptcy proceedings include the following:

• all creditors are obliged to report their claims within the deadline determined in the decision on the opening of the proceedings;
• the debtor can only make payments related to the ordinary course of business, and in relation to supplies made after the opening of pre-bankruptcy (such legal effect arises upon submission of the application for opening the pre- bankruptcy procedure);
• without prejudice to the secured creditors’ rights, the initiation of litigation, enforcement or administrative proceedings or proceedings aimed at securing claims against the debtor is prohibited, and all ongoing proceedings shall be suspended; and
• the seizure of funds on the debtor’s accounts is suspended, except with respect to claims related to salaries, severance payments and temporary injunctions issued in criminal proceedings.

Management retains its representation powers in pre-bankruptcy proceedings, but may exercise only those powers that fall within the scope of the ordinary course of business. The debtor may dispose of its assets only with the prior approval of the pre-bankruptcy trustee or the court; otherwise, such transactions have no legal effect.

The pre-bankruptcy proceeding may only last up to 120 days from the date of its opening; in exceptional circumstances only, the court may allow a prolongation for a further 180 days, upon the debtor’s proposal. If the pre-bankruptcy agreement is not entered into within such time, it will be suspended by the court. If the creditors accept the restructuring plan and the debtor gives their consent, the court would decide to accept the restructuring plan and confirm the pre-bankruptcy agreement, subject to certain exemptions prescribed by the Bankruptcy Act, in which the court may nevertheless decide not to adopt a decision and confirm the pre-bankruptcy agreement.

Bankruptcy proceedings are usually time-consuming, and satisfaction of the creditors (even secured creditors) is subject to a significant time delay. Satisfactory repayment of the debt is rare.

Moreover, under the Bankruptcy Act, there are a number of circumstances under which legal actions of the debtor that have been taken prior to the opening of bankruptcy proceedings that either undermine the right to even satisfaction of the creditors (creditors’ damage) or put certain creditors in a more favourable position (preferential treatment of creditors) may be challenged by the bankruptcy administrator and other creditors by a lawsuit, in which case further significant costs and delay may be expected. The respective hardening period can vary between one month and ten years, depending on the circumstances.

Croatia has seen varying levels of project finance activity across different industries. Historically, projects in the sectors of energy, municipal and environmental infrastructure, telecommunications, media and technology and transport have shown the most significant level of project finance in Croatia.

The legal framework relating to PPP transactions (in the wider sense of that concept) includes the following:

• the special PPP Act and related secondary regulations;
• the Concessions Act and a number of sector-specific laws and regulations dealing with sector-specific concessions (roads, airports, sea ports, etc) that are relevant in PPP projects that require a concession to be awarded;
• the Public Procurement Act; and
• other relevant laws and regulations otherwise applicable to projects in specific sectors.

A PPP is defined as a long-term contractual relationship between the public and the private partner, the subject of which is the construction and/or reconstruction of public infrastructure for the purpose of rendering public services otherwise being within the public partner’s competence, whereby the private partner assumes:

• obligations and risks regarding the building process from the public partner during the implementation of a PPP project; and
• one or both of public building availability risk and demand risk.

In accordance with the purpose of a PPP project, a public body may allow the performance of commercial activities intended to collect revenues from third parties in the market. Pursuant to the PPP Act, PPP projects are implemented via two models: a contractual PPP model and an institutional PPP model.

The maximum contracted period may vary from three to 40 years, unless a longer period is allowed by a particular sector law.

Although clearly, the concept of PPPs is recognised in Croatia, its wider implementation has faced certain challenges, including lack of political will, sufficient administrative capacities and experience in the implementation of PPP projects, lack of awareness or misunderstandings about the benefits of PPPs and issues with public perception and acceptance of PPPs. As a result, the progress in implementing PPP projects in Croatia is very limited.

Please see 6.2 Foreign Law and Jurisdiction which generally applies to project documents as well, noting that project documents like power purchase agreements and offtake contracts involving public entities tend to be rather simple, standardised and governed by Croatian law with jurisdiction of Croatian courts.

A foreign individual wishing to acquire ownership of real estate in Croatia has the right to do so only on the basis of the prior approval issued by the Ministry of Justice and Administration and provided there exists a reciprocal opportunity for Croatian individuals in that country. This restriction does not apply to citizens and legal entities from European Union member states Island, Liechtenstein and Norway, as they acquire the right of property ownership of real estate under conditions that apply to the acquisition of property ownership rights for Croatian citizens and legal entities registered in the Republic of Croatia. Generally, a foreign investor can establish a company in Croatia which, as a Croatian legal entity, can acquire real estate without limitations.

Pursuant to Croatian law, no real rights or lease can exist on maritime domain on any grounds. Public water domain is owned by the Republic of Croatia and it cannot be disposed of.

There are no restrictions for the foreign lenders to acquire security interests over real estate in Croatia.

The legal framework for investments is provided in the Investment Promotion Act, the Strategic Investment Projects Act, the Companies Act and other applicable regulations.

The Strategic Investment Projects Act provides measures aiming to shorten and accelerate the licensing procedure for public and private investment projects as well as for PPP investment projects of strategic interest for Croatia.

Legal entities registered in Croatia are considered to be domestic legal entities, regardless of who the shareholders are and the origin of the capital. As a general rule, foreign investments are not subject to restrictions under Croatian law, but certain strategic sectors or assets/sources are either subject to restrictions that apply generally, regardless of the citizenship of the acquirer (eg, maritime domain), or are subject to restrictions that apply to persons who do not have Croatian or other EU country citizenship, or that in certain cases apply to all foreigners.

In practice, most project companies are established in the form of an LLC, as the incorporation and operation of such companies are the simplest, and they are sufficiently flexible and straightforward.

Foreign investments and financing by foreign lenders may, depending on the circumstances (amount of loan, percentage of shares/control as a result of investment, sector, etc), be subject to certain reporting obligations, including to the CNB, tax authorities, Croatian Bureau of Statistics and the ultimate beneficial owners register.

The main risks to be taken into consideration when structuring a project finance transaction in Croatia are primarily legal and technical aspects, political aspects and commercial risks, including credit and repayment risk. In order to try to mitigate some of these risks, it is common to conduct an adequately detailed due diligence dealing with the relevant areas, and it is often advisable to engage experienced (local) professionals with respect to the most critical areas (depending on the type of the project).

Typical financing sources for project finance include bank financing and equity. In addition, major projects are being financed through EU funds or by way of financing by the European Investment Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the Croatian Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Project bonds are rarely used in practice.

Croatian legislation sets out various restrictions relating to natural resources, ranging from the general exclusion of certain natural resources from any trade or ownership (eg, air and water in rivers, lakes and seas, as well as the seashore) (common good) to specific measures adopted for certain categories of natural resources.

Certain restrictions apply generally, regardless of the jurisdiction of the acquirer. For example, a right of ownership or any other property right cannot be acquired on a maritime domain on any basis, as it represents a common good managed by and of interest for the Republic of Croatia.

Additional acquisition and export restrictions may apply, depending on the category of natural resources in question, so Croatian and foreign investors should seek reliable legal advice in this respect prior to acquiring any such properties.

The environmental legal framework for projects consists of EU-harmonised legislation, and includes the Environmental Protection Act and various other laws and regulations. Any project that might have a significant impact on the environment must be assessed.

At a national level, the tasks of the Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development focus on the protection and conservation of the environment and nature, in line with the sustainable development policy of the Republic of Croatia, and on water management and administrative and other tasks from the field of energy. At a regional level, the competent administrative body in the county or the City of Zagreb and other state administrative and expert organisations/institutions deal with various environmental protection matters within the scope of their responsibilities.

Health and safety issues are primarily regulated by the Law on Occupational Health and Safety.

The Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy is the main administrative body for health and safety at work in the Republic of Croatia, with the involvement of additional institutions included in the implementation of health and safety at work. In this respect, the Labour Inspection Sector of the State Inspectorate monitors the application of laws and other regulations in the field of labour relations and safety at work, while the Croatian Institute of Public Health – Department of Occupational Health provides professional assistance.