Cybersecurity 2025 Comparisons

On 22 November 2023 the Australian government released the 2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy (the “Strategy”), with the aim of strengthening Australia’s cyber defences and supporting people and businesses to be resilient to and recover quickly from cyber-attacks.

Alongside the Strategy was the 2023-2030 Australian Cyber Security Strategy: Action Plan (the “Action Plan”) setting out three “Horizons”, which culminate in Horizon 3 with Australia as a leader of the global frontier in developing cyber technologies and adapting to risk and opportunities. Currently, Australia is in the final year of Horizon 1 (“Strengthen our foundations”) whereby it is aiming to address critical gaps, build protections and support “initial cyber maturity uplift”, with the government setting itself up for Horizon 2 (“Expand our search”) come 2026, which aims to scale cyber maturity across the whole economy, make investments and grow a diverse cyber workforce.

The government has grounded its vision in six “shields” or “layers of defence” comprising the businesses and citizens, safe technology, world-class threat sharing and blocking, protected critical infrastructure, sovereign capabilities, and resilient region and global leadership. It has set out in its Action Plan different actions and objectives for each shield, some of which can be seen through recent reform and others not.

Notwithstanding 2025 is the final year of Horizon 1, it is also the first year that the Action Plan is set to be reviewed; and with the Federal election to take place by May 2025, there may be some changes to the strategy, purposes and actions to come.

Australia has a broad system of federal, state and territory-based laws which govern data protection, cybersecurity and cybercrime.

Data Protection

Entities dealing with personal information in Australia should also be aware of their obligations with respect to:

• the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) (the “Privacy Act”), which regulates the handling of personal information by “APPs entities” pursuant to the Australian Privacy Principles (APPs);
• the Digital ID Act 2024 (Cth) (the “Digital ID Act”), which is intended to embed safeguards for digital ID services and data in addition to the Privacy Act;
• privacy legislation enacted at the state and territory level;
• the My Health Records Act 2012 (Cth) (the “My Health Records Act”), which imposes specific obligations for health information collected and stored in Australia’s national online health database (in addition to the Privacy Act);
• state and territory health records legislation enacted in NSW, Victoria (Vic) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT); and
• federal, state and territory surveillance legislation, which regulates video surveillance, computer and data monitoring, GPS tracking and the use of listening devices on individuals.

Further definitions and details on the Privacy Act are set out in 6.1 Cybersecurity and Data Protection.

Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity laws in Australia are primarily governed under sector-specific federal laws, and include the following.

• Critical infrastructure: this sector is regulated under the Security of Critical Infrastructure Act 2018 (Cth) (the “SOCI Act”), which imposes registration, reporting and notification obligations on owners and operators of critical infrastructure and empowers the Australian government to gather information and issue directions where there is a risk to security. More details are in 2. Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity.
• Telecommunications: this sector is regulated by dual legislation, being:
1. the Telecommunications Act 1997 (Cth) (the “Telecommunications Act”), which imposes security and notification obligations on Australian telecommunications providers and empowers the Australian government to gather information and issue directions; and
2. the Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act 1979 (Cth) (the “TIA Act”), which prohibits the interception of communication and access to stored communication data, except for certain law enforcement and national security purposes.
• Corporate: corporations generally are regulated under the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) (the “Corporations Act”), which is highly relevant to the cybersecurity space. For example, the director’s duty to exercise “care and diligence” (Section 180) is equally relevant here.
• Financial services: certain financial, insurance and superannuation entities are regulated through standards, including the Prudential Standard CPS 234 on Information Security (CPS 234), issued by the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA). Additionally, entities in the financial services have specific obligations under the Corporations Act, such as adequate risk management systems to hold a financial licence (Section 912A). 

There are additional laws that are highly relevant to the cybersecurity space that are less sector-specific, such as consumer law, specifically the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth) (the “Consumer Act”) which addresses consumer affairs, including consumer data protection and cyberscams.

Cybercrime

Overlaying the above are various cybercrime offences in Australia at the federal, state and territory levels. These offences broadly encompass two categories:

• offences that are directed at computers or other devices and involve hacking-type activities; and
• cyber-enabled offences where such devices are used as a key component of the offence, including in online fraud, online child abuse offences and cyberstalking.

Federally, cybercrime is criminalised under Parts 10.6 and 10.7 of the Schedule to the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) (the “Criminal Code”), which set out a variety of offences with maximum penalties ranging from fine-only through to life imprisonment.

Organisations should note that in addition to the Criminal Code:

• the TIA Act also makes it a federal offence for an individual to (without authorisation) intercept or access private telecommunications without the knowledge of those involved; and
• state and territory laws criminalise computer offences similar to those criminalised under the Criminal Code (eg, Part 6 of the Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) provide for multiple computer offences regarding unauthorised access, modification or impairment of restricted data and electronic communications).

Australian states and territories also have their own criminal laws which govern cybercrime offences.

Other Laws

Areas that are also related to cybersecurity include:

• the Broadcasting Services Act 1992 (Cth) (the “Broadcasting Act”) regulates broadcasting services through internet and other means in Australia and enables the creation of industry codes of practice regulating the content of such services;
• the Online Safety Act 2021 (Cth) (OSA) establishes complaint systems for cyberbullying of children, non-consensual sharing of intimate images, cyber-abuse of adults, and the online/social media availability of content that would be subject to broadcasting classifications (restricted or age 18 years and over);
• The Spam Act 2003 (Cth) (the “Spam Act”) prohibits the use of electronic communications for the purpose of sending unsolicited marketing materials to individuals; and
• The Do Not Call Register Act 2006 (Cth) (the “DNCR Act”) prohibits unsolicited telemarketing calls being made to phone numbers registered on a Do Not Call Register.

Australia has a range of federal, state and territory regulators and agencies which deal with cybersecurity.

The overarching government agencies are:

• the Department of Home Affairs (DoHA); and
• the Australian Signals Directorate (ASD).

The key regulators and enforcement bodies include:

• the Office of the Information Commissioner (OAIC);
• the Critical Infrastructure Centre (CIC);
• the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA);
• the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC);
• the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA); and
• the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC).

Specifically in relation to criminal enforcement, the following regulators are key:

• the Australian Federal Police (AFP);
• the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (CDPP);
• the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO);
• the Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre (AUSTRAC); and
• the Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission (ACIC).

Each of the above are addressed below.

Overarching Government Agencies

DoHA

The DoHA is the lead government department for cyberpolicy. The DoHA develops cybersecurity and cybercrime law and policy, implements Australia’s national cybersecurity strategy and responds to international and domestic cybersecurity threats and opportunities, including in the areas of critical infrastructure and emerging technologies. The DoHA also has responsibility for cybersecurity and cybercrime operational agencies including the AFP, ACIC, AUSTRAC, and ASIO.

ASD, ACSC and CERT

The ASD is Australia’s operational lead on cybersecurity and plays both a signals intelligence and information security role. The ASD undertakes cyberthreat monitoring and conducts defensive, disruption and offensive cyber-operations offshore to support military operations and to counter terrorism, cyber-espionage and serious cyber-enabled crime. The ASD also advises and co-ordinates operational responses to cyber-intrusions on government, critical infrastructure, information networks and other systems of national significance.

Within the ASD sits the Australian Cyber Security Centre (ACSC). The ACSC drives cyber-resilience across the whole Australian economy including with respect to critical infrastructure, government, large organisations and small to medium businesses, academia, NGOs and the broader Australian community. The ACSC provides general information, advice and assistance to Australian organisations and the public on cyberthreats and it collaborates with business, government and the community to increase cyber-resilience across Australia.

The ACSC also runs the Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT), which provides advice and support to industry on cybersecurity issues affecting Australia’s critical infrastructure and other systems of national significance.

Other key government bodies

At this juncture, the following should also be noted.

• The Attorney-General’s Department (AGD) advises government on cybersecurity policies and law, including in relation to human rights, privacy, protective security, international law, administration of criminal justice, and oversight of intelligence, security and law enforcement agencies.
• The Department of Defence (DoD) contributes to Australia’s whole-of-government cybersecurity policy and operations and houses ASD; it also houses the Information Warfare Division, which develops information warfare capabilities for the Australian Defence Force (ADF).
• The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) advances Australia’s international cyber-affairs agenda, which includes digital trade, cybersecurity, cybercrime, international security, internet governance and co-operation, human rights and democracy online, and technology for development.

Data Protection and Privacy

The OAIC is the federal privacy and information regulator with a range of functions and powers to investigate and resolve privacy complaints, enforce privacy compliance, make determinations and provide remedies for breaches under the notifiable data breach (NDB) scheme. The OAIC operates by reference to the Privacy Act, the My Health Records Act, the Telecommunications Act, the TIA Act, and recently the Digital ID Act.

The remedies range from enforceable undertakings to civil penalties of 2,000 penalty units (approximately AUD626,000); but may also involve imprisonment. Since December 2022, serious and repeated interferences with privacy may attract a penalty of up to:

• for entities, not body corporates – AUD2.5 million; or
• for body corporates – the greater of AUD50 million, three times the value of the benefit attributable to the conduct or 30% of the adjusted turnover for the relevant period.

There are also state and territory privacy commissioners which administer state and territory-based privacy and health information laws. These include:

• the NSW Information and Privacy Commission who administers, inter alia, the Privacy and Personal Information Protection Act 1998 (NSW) and Health Records and Information Privacy Act 2002 (NSW); and
• the Office of the Victorian Information Commissioner who administers the Privacy and Data Protection Act 2014 (Vic) and the Victorian Health Complaints Commissioner handles breaches of the Health Records Act 2001 (Vic).

Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity

The CIC is part of the DoHA and is the federal regulator of the SOCI Act and certain provisions of the Telecommunications Act with powers to investigate, audit and enforce on compliance matters.

The CIC also has the ability to make recommendations to DoHA and the Home Affairs Minister on whether their information-gathering powers and directions powers should be exercised. The CIC also has enforcement powers which allows it to issue penalties for non-compliance that range from performance injunctions, enforceable undertakings, civil penalties of up to 250 penalty units (AUD78,250) or seek two years’ imprisonment. 

Telecommunications, Broadcasting and Marketing Cybersecurity

The ACMA is Australia’s regulator for broadcasting, telecommunication and certain online content and provides licensing to industry providers. ACMA has specific regulatory powers under the Telecommunications Act, the TIA Act, the Spam Act, and the DNCR Act to investigate and resolve complaints and enforce compliance. In dealing with non-compliance, ACMA is empowered to issue warnings, infringement notices, enforceable undertakings and remedial directions. ACMA is further able to cancel or impose conditions on licences and accreditations. ACMA also has the ability to commence civil proceedings or refer matters for criminal prosecution.

Additionally, the Office of the eSafety Commissioner (the “eSafety Commissioner”) has powers to promote and regulate online safety with respect to telecommunications, broadcasting and other online industries. However, the eSafety Commissioner cannot investigate matters of cybercrime. Penalties range from takedown notices and blocking directions.

Corporations, Consumers and Financial Services Cybersecurity

The ASIC is Australia’s corporate, market and financial services regulator, is empowered under the Corporations Act to investigate and bring actions against corporations, directors and officers for non-compliance with the Corporations Act, which, in some circumstances, may involve cybersecurity issues. It regulates publicly listed corporations under the Corporations Act and may investigate issues which touch on cybersecurity.

The APRA regulates certain finance, banking, insurance and superannuation entities and issued information security standards CPS 234. APRA has powers to supervise, monitor and intervene in matters of cybersecurity for regulated entities and has a range of enforcement powers to deal with breaches of its standards. Such powers involve APRA issuing infringement notices, providing directions or enforceable undertakings, imposing licensing conditions, disqualifying senior officials and commencing court-based action.

The ACCC is Australia’s competition regulator and consumer protector, may, where appropriate, undertake enforcement action against breaches of the Consumer Act, including breaches involving cybersecurity, cybercrime and cyberscam issues. The ACCC additionally:

• administers the Consumer Data Right (CDR) regime;
• co-regulates (with OAIC) the Digital ID Act; and
• hosts the Scamwatch website which provides public information, alerts and access to complaints mechanisms on a wide range of consumer scams, including scams perpetrated online.

Also relevant for the financial sector is that OAIC regulates the aspects of the Privacy Act which deal with credit reporting obligations and the credit reporting code, which imposes certain conditions on entities that hold credit-related personal information.

Cybercrime

Cybercrime at the federal level is investigated and enforced by the AFP and prosecuted by the CDPP. The AFP have a dedicated cybercrime operations team comprising investigators, technical specialists and intelligence analysts who operate across multiple jurisdictions to conduct cyber-assessments and to triage, investigate and disrupt cybercrime.

More specifically:

• ACIC is Australia’s national criminal intelligence agency ‒ it has broad investigative and coercive powers and shares information between all levels of law enforcement;
• AUSTRAC is the domestic watchdog for Australia’s anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism measures ‒ it supports law enforcement operations involving cybercrime financing; and
• ASIO investigates cyber-activity involving espionage, sabotage and terrorism related activities ‒ ASIO also contributes to the investigation of computer network operations directed against Australia’s systems.

State and territory-based police and prosecution agencies investigate, enforce and prosecute state and territory cybercrimes.

Australia’s critical infrastructure and assets are regulated through Commonwealth, state and territory legislation, with a particular emphasis on the SOCI Act. That said, there is broader legislation, such as the Privacy Act and Cyber Security Act, and more sector-specific legislation, such as the Telecommunications Act, that cannot be ignored.

SOCI Act (and TSSR)

The SOCI Act currently regulates certain assets across eleven sectors: communications, data storage and processing, financial services, energy, food and grocery, health and medical, higher education and research, space technology, transport, water and sewerage, and the defence industry. And from November 2025, telecommunications security obligations (which are currently under the Telecommunication Sector Security Reforms (TSSR)) will be moved into the SOCI, a change implemented by the Security of Critical Infrastructure and Other Legislation Amendment (Enhanced Response and Prevention) Act 2024 (Cth) (the “2024 SOCI Amendment Act”).

Notwithstanding recent reforms which clarified the SOCI Act, the exact parameters of the legislation are broad and complex, and extend to various participants in a supply chain including “responsible entities”, “reporting entities”, “direct interest holders”, “managed service providers” and “operators”. Some of these definitions are asset-specific, but for our purposes, it is important to note that a “responsible entity” is generally the entity that owns, is licensed or otherwise responsible for operating the asset.

Further, despite the imminent shift of the TSSR and its obligations to the SOCI Act, these obligations still remain in force and apply to the relevant infrastructure as is. The TSSR are applicable to carriers, carriage service providers and carriage service intermediaries.

Cyber Security Act

Additionally, there are cybersecurity obligations imposed on critical infrastructure under the Cyber Security Act where they constitute “a reporting business entity”.

A “reporting business entity” is an entity that:

• is carrying on a business in Australia with an annual turnover for the previous financial year that exceeds the “turnover threshold for that year” (to be determined) but is not a Commonwealth body, State body, or responsible entity for a critical infrastructure asset; or
• a responsible entity for a critical infrastructure asset “to which Part 2B of the Security of Critical Infrastructure Act 2018 applies”, which is defined in the rules or declaration ‒ at the time of writing, these were prescribed in Security of Critical Infrastructure (Application) Rules (LIN 22/026) 2022 (the “SOCI Application Rules”) and includes most infrastructure assets.

The SOCI Act imposes requirements on owners and operators of assets across various fields. The exact requirements vary depending on the particular asset/industry; however, may include a requirement to:

• register with the Register of Critical Infrastructure Assets;
• provide ownership and operational information;
• notify the government of certain cyber-incidents;
• implement and comply with a critical infrastructure risk management programme (CIRMP); and
• if they have “business critical data” processed or stored by a third party on a commercial basis, they must take reasonable steps to notify that third party.

Further still, the SOCI Act and associated rules impose enhanced cybersecurity obligations on assets designated as “systems of national significance” (SoNS). These must be assets that are already considered a “critical infrastructure asset”, but also that they are of “national significance”. These designations are private and confidential so as to avoid publicising their significance to malicious actors. Reports indicate that over 200 systems have been designated to date.

A responsible entity for a SoNS may be required to:

• fulfil statutory response planning obligations;
• undertake a cybersecurity exercise (see 3.6 Threat-Led Penetration Testing);
• undertake a vulnerability assessment (see 3.6 Threat-Led Penetration Testing); and
• where the system is a computer or needs a computer to operate the system, undertake periodic reports, provide event-based reports or install software that transmits system information to the ASD.

It is also worth noting that the SOCI Act also includes:

• an information gathering power for the Secretary of the DoHA to monitor compliance; and
• a directions power for the Home Affairs Minister to direct regulated entities to do or not do a specified thing that is reasonably necessary to protect critical infrastructure from national security risks.

Mandatory Incident Reporting Obligations

SOCI Act

As mentioned above, the SOCI Act and associated rules impose reporting obligations on various entities.

Responsible entities must report cybersecurity incidents that have a significant or relevant impact on their asset. In other words, a “responsible entity” must make a report when it becomes aware of the following.

• A “cyber security incident” that “has had, or is having, a significant impact (whether direct or indirect) on the availability of the asset” ‒ such a “significant impact” is defined as being where “the incident has materially disrupted the availability of [the] essential goods or service” in connection with which the asset is used to provide. The report must be made “as soon as practicable, and in any event within 12 hours, after the entity becomes aware”. If the initial report is oral, then a written report must be made within 84 hours after the oral report is given.
• A “cyber security incident” that “has had, or is having, or is likely to have, a relevant impact on the asset” ‒ such a “relevant impact” is defined (for critical infrastructure assets) as a (direct or indirect) impact on the availability, integrity, reliability of the asset, or on the confidentiality of information about the asset, information stored on the asse or computer data constituting the asse. The report must be made “as soon as practicable, and in any event within 72 hours, after the entity becomes aware. If the initial report is oral, then a written report must be filed within 48 hours of the oral report.

A “cyber security incident” is the:

• unauthorised access to or modification of computer data or computer program;
• unauthorised impairment of electronic communications to or from a computer (but does not include “a mere interception of any such communication”); or
• unauthorised impairment of the availability, reliability, security or operation of computer data, a computer program or a computer.

Either of these reports must be given to the ASD (unless another relevant Commonwealth body is specified in the rules). Failure to make a report at all or in writing, or in the approved form, can each be punished by an AUD16,500 fine.

Cyber Security Act

Irrespective of whether the cybersecurity incident meets the above significance or relevance thresholds, most critical infrastructure assets (being “a reporting business entity”) have additional reporting obligations under the Cyber Security Act.

In summary, there is an obligation to report to the ASD (or other designated Commonwealth agency) where:

• there is a cybersecurity incident that has had, is having, or could reasonably be expected to have a (direct or indirect) impact on a reporting business entity;
• an entity (the extorting entity) demands a benefit; and
• the reporting entity (or a third party on their behalf) makes the ransomware payment.

Such a report must be given with 72 hours of the reporting business entity becoming aware of the payment and must contain certain information.

A “cyber security incident” for these purposes broader than under the SOCI Act as it not only includes any such incident that falls within the scope of the SOCI Act, but is presumed to include any incident:

• involving unauthorised impairment of electronic communication to or from a computer (per the SOCI Act) including mere interception of any such communication; and
• where the incident is (actually or is reasonably expected to be) effected by means of “telegraphic, telephonic or other like service”, if the incident (actually, probably, or it is reasonable to expect it) impeded or impaired “the ability of a computer to connect to such a service” or the incident (probably or is reasonably expected to have) prejudiced Australia’s social/economic stability, defence or national security.

Voluntary Incident Reporting Obligations

The ACSC has a cyber-incident reporting portal through which critical asset owners are encouraged to voluntarily report cybersecurity incidents.

Any impacted entity carrying or a business in Australia or otherwise a responsible entity for critical infrastructure is now being statutorily encouraged to make voluntary reports to the NCS Coordinator under the Cyber Security Act, even where it is unclear if an incident is a cybersecurity incident.

Other Mandatory Reporting Obligations

Other reporting obligations under the SOCI Act for critical infrastructure assets include:

• taking reasonable steps to notify a third-party entity if that third party is processing or storing “business critical data” on a commercial basis;
• an ongoing obligation on a “reporting entity” to report a “notifiable event” in relation to an asset usually within 30 days after the event occurs, which relates to changes in the operational information and interest/control information in relation to “director interest holders”, or the status of an entity as a reporting entity; and
• reporting if a hazard had significant relevant impacts on a critical infrastructure asset.

See additionally relevant obligations in 6.1 Cybersecurity and Data Protection.

Criminal Offences

Related to infrastructure, Part 10.6 of the Criminal Code places obligations on providers of content or hosting services to notify the AFP as to the existence of material displaying “abhorrent violent conduct” (if occurring in Australia) and, in any event, to expeditiously remove or cease to host such material.

The Australian government considers “the responsibility for ensuring the continuity of operations and the provision of essential services to the Australian economy and community” as being shared “between owners and operators of critical infrastructure, state and territory governments and the Australian Government”.

Generally speaking, government bodies may also be captured within the scope of legislative regimes such as the Privacy Act, and therefore have the same (or similar) obligations as their private-sphere counterparts. However, the SOCI Act does not apply to the Commonwealth or a body corporate established under Commonwealth law unless so declared or prescribed.

The Australian government is responsible for the “final defence” of Australian infrastructure and cybersecurity. To this end, the SOCI Act grants the Minister last resort “government assistance measures” and powers where a cybersecurity incident relates to a declared national emergency, or else where there is a material risk that a cybersecurity incident has, is or will likely seriously prejudice the Australia’s social or economic stability, defence or national security. These include the heavily circumscribed Ministerial power to request an authorised agency to intervene in relation to computer-related activities where an entity is unwilling or unable to respond to an incident.

Additionally, the Cyber Incident Review Board (CIRB) has been established as an independent statutory advisory body responsible for conducting no-fault, post-incident reviews of significant cybersecurity incidents in Australia. The CIRB post review report will contain recommendations to government and industry about actions to prevent, detect, respond to or minimise the impact of future cybersecurity incidents of a similar nature.

In pursuit of national cohesion, the state authorities adopt the following approaches.

• The ACSC facilitates information and collaboration across private, public and NGO sectors to develop collective cyber-resilience and to respond to cyber-incidents. In this regard, the ACSC has commenced: a partnership programme, involving private, public, and NGO sectors, to enable information sharing and network hardening; and an alert service, which provides information on recent cyber threats as well as prevention and mitigation advice.
• The Joint Cyber Security Centres (JCSC) are state-based agencies which collaborate with organisations across the private, public and NGO sectors on cybersecurity and cybercrime threats and response options.

Even for the financial sector, there is a patchwork of legislation covering the financial sector’s operational resilience, leading to variation in scopes. This legislation includes the SOCI Act, the Corporations Act, the Banking Ac 1959 (Cth) and the Insurance Act 1973 (Cth).

Corporations Act

As a starting point, the Corporations Act imposes a duty to exercise “care and diligence” on all directors and officers of corporations (Section 180) which inherently involves considerations relating to cybersecurity resilience. But more specifically, the Corporations Act requires corporations holding financial licences to have adequate risk management systems (Section 912A).

CPS 234

On top of this, APRA’s CPS 234 regulates information security standards for APRA-regulated financial, insurance and superannuation entities.

Other Legislation (SOCI Act and Cyber Security Act)

Additionally, other legislation and regulation applicable to sectors beyond the financial is equally relevant here. These include the SOCI Act, since the financial services and markets sector does fall within its scope, so as to include certain banking assets, superannuation assets, insurance assets and financial market infrastructure assets (see 2. Scope of Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity). Each of these are, in turn, defined and cover a range of assets owned or operated by entities with certain Australian market licensees, CS facility licensees, benchmark administrators, and more, but most with the underlying condition that the asset is “critical to the security and reliability of the financial services and markets sector”.

Those that fall outside the scope of the SOCI Act may fall within the scope of the Cyber Security Act, which imposes reporting obligations on “reporting business entities”. See 2. Scope of Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity.

Information and communications technology (ICT) service providers are not expressly defined in Australia. However, legislation does address “data processing or storage” assets and providers. Such an asset may be considered itself a critical infrastructure asset, separate to other critical infrastructure, and therefore fall within the scope of the SOCI Act.

Specifically, an entity that owns or operates a “data storage or processing asset” will be considered a responsible entity under the SOCI Act and their asset “critical” if:

• the entity wholly or primarily provides data storage or processing services that relate to “business critical data”, being “personal information” (per the Privacy Act - see 6.1 Cybersecurity and Data Protection) relating to at least 20,000 individuals, or otherwise information relating to any research and development, needed to operate, systems needed to operate, or risk management and business continuity in relation to a critical infrastructure asset;
• these services are provided to certain end‑users, primarily either:
1. the Commonwealth, a State, a Territory, or a body corporate established under such a Commonwealth, State or Territory law; or
2. the responsible entity for a critical infrastructure asset;
• the entity knows that the asset is used by the above end-user; and
• the asset does not constitute another critical infrastructure asset.

Further, the 2024 SOCI Amendment Act clarified the SOCI Act so that it included secondary assets who hold business critical data relating to the primary asset. Notably, the intent behind these amendments is not to capture all non-operational systems holding business critical data; rather only those where vulnerabilities could significantly impact critical infrastructure assets. Examples of relevant operational data included network blueprints, encryption keys, algorithms, operational system code, and tactics, techniques and procedures.

The regulations may specifically exclude other such assets. See 2. Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity for their obligations and responsibilities.

There is no specific legislation for “digital operational resilience” for the financial sector as seen in the European jurisdictions; however, the objectives of enabling the financial sector to be or remain resilient in the face of serious operational disruption and prevent/mitigate cyberthreats are reflected in the patchwork of legislation.

SOCI

Specifically looking at the obligations under the SOCI Act for the financial sector, although financial business using or constituting critical infrastructure assets have the same incident reporting obligations already covered (see 2.3 Incident Response and Notification Obligations), such services do not have the obligations to register as critical assets and to have a CIRMP under the SOCI Act (except where they are “payment services”).

As an aside, a financial service can be classified as a SoNS under the SOCI Act, attracting the enhanced cybersecurity obligations.

Corporations Act

Notwithstanding the position under the SOCI Act, financial services are likely already required to be registered with APRA and/or obtain a form of financial service licensing; and in doing the latter, must, inter alia, provide their services “efficiently and fairly” and have an adequate risk management program. Australian courts have already confirmed that such a risk management plan must ensure adequate cybersecurity and cyber-resilience measures are adequately implemented across its business.

CPS 234

APRA’s CPS 234 requires APRA-regulated financial, insurance and superannuation entities to comply with legally binding minimum standards of information security, including by:

• specifying information security roles and responsibilities for the entities’ board, senior management, governing bodies and individuals;
• implementing and maintaining appropriate information security capabilities;
• maintaining tools to detect and respond to information security incidents in a timely way; and
• notifying APRA of any material information security incidents.

These standards provide that an entity’s board is ultimately responsible for information security and that the board must ensure that its entity maintains information security in a manner that is commensurate with the size and vulnerability of that entity’s information assets.

APRA-regulated entities are required to externally audit their organisation’s compliance with CPS 234 and report to APRA in a timely manner.

If organisations are non-compliant, they may be required to issue breach notices and create rectification plans. If organisations are unable to comply with the standards following this process, APRA may undertake a more formal enforcement process which may include enforceable undertakings or court proceedings.

Cyber Security Act

In addition to the reporting obligations under the CPS 234, certain responsible entities concerning “critical financial market infrastructure asset” (2.1 Scope of Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity Regulation) also have ransomware reporting obligations under the Cyber Security Act (see 2.3 Incident Response and Notification Obligations).

As at the time of writing, there was no enforcement action against “data processing or storage” providers or other ICT services. In fact, there has been no enforcement action reported in relation to the SOCI Act.

According to CISC’s Compliance and Enforcement Strategy published in April 2022, the CISC prioritises industry partnership and pursues a co-operative, educative and overall voluntary approach. Although it has a range of regulatory options available, it is yet to use any penalising enforcement action. 

Depending on the breach, action against ICTs may also come from other regulators such as the OAIC.

Government Transfers

Although there are limits on the use of the cybersecurity information provided by reporting business entities under the Cyber Security Act and Intelligence Services Act 2001 (Cth), these limitations are unlikely to prevent the ASD, National Cyber Security Coordinator (NCS Coordinator) or CIRB from disclosing the information to foreign authorities or joint partnerships for particular purposes. For example, where information if voluntarily provided in relation to a significant cybersecurity incident, the NCS Coordinator disclose this information in “coordinating the whole of Government response” or otherwise to inform Commonwealth ministers; who may then disclose this information for a “permitted cyber security purpose” such as mitigating material risks that prejudice Australia’s social/economic stability, defence or national security. This may include sharing and international transfers of information to foreign authorities or co-ordinated partnerships.

Market Transfers

Privacy Act

The primary legislation governing data transfers in Australia is the Privacy Act, which was relevantly amended by the Privacy and Other Legislation Amendment Act 2024 (Cth) (the “2024 Privacy Amendments”) on 29 November 2024.

Prior to these amendments, international (cross-border) disclosures of personal information were addressed primarily by APP 8. This principle required APP entities to “take such steps as are reasonable in the circumstances to ensure that the overseas recipient does not breach the Australian Privacy Principles”. What is “reasonable” depends on one’s specific circumstances but will usually involve a contract incorporating the APPs and the Australian entities monitoring or at least assessing the overseas entity’s systems. Importantly, APP 8 is not limited to where there is active transfer of data but rather extends to wherever data is accessible to an overseas entity (eg, stored on servers in Australia, but accessible by overseas entities).

The 2024 Privacy Amendments introduces an adequacy regime, meaning there is now a mechanism by which the Government can prescribe a “white list” of countries and binding schemes that are recognised as being on par with APP 8.

Consumer Data Right

In respect of data transfers more generally, Part IVD of the Consumer Act regulates the handling (including sharing) of CDR. The CDR was rolled out to the banking and energy sectors in 2020 and 2022 respectively. Although it was to continue into the superannuation, insurance and telecommunications sectors (and then into the non-bank lenders and Buy Now Pay Later products), the government paused the roll out in 2023, commissioned a report in August 2024 (which found that compliance costs exceeded initial estimates) and is now considering amendments to “reset” the CDR, involving the simplification of the customer consent progress and the encouragement of operational enhancements to reduce the barriers to participation in the CDR.

Prohibitions

Certain information is prohibited from being held or taken outside Australia, such as records held for the purposes of the My Health Record system. Breach of this prohibition could result in a maximum criminal penalty of five years imprisonment and AUD99,000; or a civil penalty of AUD495,000.

Cybercrime

For completeness, it should also be noted that unauthorised access to computer systems (hacking, forceable transfers, etc) is criminalised by both State and Federal legislation. For example, persons suspected of unauthorised access to computer systems are charged pursuant to Section 478.1 of the Criminal Code, which provides for the offence of “Unauthorised access to, or modification of, restricted data”.

These offences have extraterritorial application, meaning that conduct undertaken outside Australia can still be charged and prosecuted under Australian law if:

• the crime involves conduct both inside and outside Australia;
• the crime results in harm within Australia;
• the offender is an Australian citizen, or a corporation incorporated in Australia; or
• the crime is related to another crime that occurred in Australia.

Other legislation

In addition to the above, the following existing and potential legislation is relevant to data transfers, including those that are cross-border.

• In December 2024, the Digital ID Act and the Digital ID (Transitional and Consequential Provisions) Act 2024 (Cth) commenced that, inter alia, restrict an accredited entity on the collection, use and disclosure of biometrics and other personal information. The Digital ID Rules are to also address the storing and transfer of information outside Australia and are expected to take the form of blanket prohibitions, with an exemption application process. 
• The Australian Treasury’s action has stalled since 2023 when it announced that a formal ban on “screen scraping” or “digital data capture” (ie, collection of displayed data for various uses) in the banking sector was being considered. There are continuing concerns of the protection of screen scraped data, and how existing legislation applies to its handling or transfers.

Threat-led penetration testing (TLPT) is the testing of systems by replicating the methods used by actual threat actors against. Generally speaking, TLPT is not a requirement in Australia.

Currently, only those critical infrastructure assets designated as a SoNS may be required to undertake:

• a “cyber security exercise”, the purpose of which is to test the entity’s ability to respond appropriateness, preparedness to respond appropriately, and ability to mitigate the relevant impacts, and thereafter prepare an internal report, which can in turn, be audited; and
• a vulnerability assessment, the purpose of which is to test system vulnerabilities to the relevant cybersecurity incident, and thereafter prepare a vulnerability assessment report.

TLPT is also a component of regulatory guidance (eg, ASD’s best practices for deploying secure and resilient AI systems).

On the flipside, unsolicited/unauthorised penetration testing activity could be captured by Section 478.1 of the Criminal Code, which provides for the offence of “[un]authorised access to, or modification of, restricted data”.

There is no specific legislation for cyber-resilience in Australia.

However, cyber-resilience requirements have legislative status across various contexts, including:

• the risk management programmes required by the legislation already discussed under the SOCI Act for responsible entities of critical infrastructure assets (2.2 Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity) and the Corporations Act for financial licensees (3.3 Key Operational Resilience Obligations);
• other obligations on certain responsible entities concerning TLPT-like requirements (3.6 Threat-Led Penetration Testing); and
• the data protection standards for various types of information such as “personal information” (6.1 Cybersecurity and Data Protection) and the healthcare sector (6.3 Cybersecurity in the Healthcare Sector).

Further, the Cyber Security Act provided a framework by which the Minister can prescribe mandatory rules for smart devices, which seeks to replace the 2020 voluntary Code of Practice: Securing the Internet of Things for Consumers. The details of the framework are still yet to enter into law, but it will apply to products that are either “internet‑connectable” or “network‑connectable”, subject to certain exceptions relating to laptops, medical devices and cars. This framework will be primarily targeted towards manufacturers and suppliers of these devices. 

Cyber-resilience obligations are imposed on certain responsible entities of critical infrastructure asset by way of the Critical Infrastructure Risk Management Program, which must be adopted, reviewed and updated. The purpose of these programmes is to identify each hazard with a material risk and minimise, eliminate or mitigate that hazard (or its material risk). The relevant responsible entities and specific requirements for these programmes are set out in the Security of Critical Infrastructure (Critical infrastructure risk management program) Rules (LIN 23/006) 2023.

In respect of smart devices, according to the CISC’s explanatory document outlining the Cyber Security (Security Standards for Smart Devices) Rules, their cyber-resilience obligations will include mandatory obligations relating to passwords, procedures to report security issues, support period for security updates, as well as voluntary labelling schemes. However, the regulations are yet to be passed.

Other cyber-resilience obligations for critical infrastructure, the broader financial sector and others are discussed elsewhere in this chapter.

There is no single legislation in Australia addressing broad-sweeping information technology and cybersecurity (ITC) certification procedures.

However, ITC-relevant certification provisions are relevant to the SOCI Act. Specifically, where a responsible entity holds a certain “certificate of hosting certification (strategic level)” that relates to its critical infrastructure asset, that entity is exempt from needing a critical infrastructure risk management programme. This certificate must be issued under a scheme that is administered by the Commonwealth and known as the hosting certification framework.

At the time of writing, this framework was only available to data centre providers and cloud service providers; and approximately 11 data centre facilities and 14 cloud services were certified. 

For additional context, since 30 June 2022, all government contracts for hosting services must be with certified service providers. However, this policy requirement is not restricted to “strategic level” certification per the SOCI Act. Under this framework, there are three certification “strategic”, “assured” and “uncertified”. Depending on a government department’s risk profile and data set, they may contract with a “Certified Assured Service Provider”.

The Privacy Act

Scope

Federally, data containing personal information is protected under the Privacy Act, which regulates the handling of this information by “APPs entities”.

At this juncture, it is important to note two definitions.

• “Personal information” under the Privacy Act is defined broadly as information or an opinion about an identified or reasonably identifiable individual. It is not required to be true or recorded in a material form. Personal information also includes “sensitive information”, which includes information or opinions on an individual’s race, ethnicity, politics, religion, sexual orientation, health, trade associations and criminal records. Sensitive information is often afforded a higher level of protection than other personal information.
• “APP entities” are, subject to some exceptions, federal government agencies, private sector organisations with an annual turnover of over AUD3 million and smaller entities with data-intensive business practices (including private health providers, businesses that sell or purchase personal information and service providers to the federal government).

Schedule 1 of the Privacy Act contains 13 APPs, which are minimum standards for processing and handling personal information by APP entities. The Privacy Act also requires mandatory reporting for certain APP breaches under the NDB scheme. Breaches of the Privacy Act may result in investigation and enforcement action by the OAIC.

Reporting obligations (the NDB scheme)

The NDB scheme requires APP entities to notify both affected individuals and the OAIC where there are reasonable grounds to believe that an “eligible data breach” has occurred. In short, as per Section 26WE(2) of the Privacy Act, an “eligible data breach” occurs where:

• there is unauthorised access to/disclosure of personal information and a reasonable person would conclude that this “would be likely to result in serious harm to any of the individuals to whom the information relates”; or
• personal information is lost in circumstances where a reasonable person would conclude that unauthorised access to/disclosure of it is likely to occur and, were it to occur, it “would be likely to result in serious harm to any of the individuals to whom the information relates”.

However, Section 26WF of the Privacy Act creates an exception to reporting such an incident, where the entity in question takes remedial action to ensure that the breach does not cause serious harm to the individuals concerned.

Notably, specific data breaches related to certain health records are excluded from this scheme and are to be addressed under Section 75 of the My Health Records Act (see 6.3 Cybersecurity in the Healthcare Sector).

The ACSC provides an overarching definition for cybersecurity events in its Guidelines for Cyber Security Incidents. In these Guidelines, a cybersecurity event is “an occurrence of a system, service or network state indicating a possible breach of security policy, failure of safeguards or a previously unknown situation that may be relevant to security”. While there is no general legislative definition of a cybersecurity event, the SOCI Act, at Section 12M, provides a limited, more complex definition.

Statutory tort

Also, it is important to note here that the 2024 Privacy Amendment introduced a statutory tort for serious invasions of privacy, giving individuals a route to seek redress for privacy harms in the courts.

State and Territory Reporting Obligations

There are also schemes at the state/territory level. For example, both NSW and Queensland had introduced mandatory notification of data breach schemes via, respectively, the Privacy and Personal Information Protection Amendment Act 2022 (NSW) (entered into force 28 November 2023) and Information Privacy and Other Legislation Amendment Act 2023 (Qld) (commencement date to be set by proclamation). These largely mirror the federal scheme.

Other Reporting Obligations

There is other relevant legislation for data protection and reporting obligations, including in relation to certain health records (see 6.3 Cybersecurity in the Healthcare Sector), financial sector (3. Financial Sector Operational Resilience) and critical infrastructure assets (2. Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity).

At the time of writing, there is no AI-specific regulation on AI; however, there is a patchwork of laws regulating critical infrastructure, privacy, consumer protection, data security and more that all touch on aspects of AI development and use.

Further, Australia has voluntary instruments, including:

• ethical frameworks, including the Australia’s AI Ethics Principles, that has been supplemented on 15 June 2023 by NAIC’s Implementing Australia’s AI Ethics principles: A selection of responsible AI practices and resources; and
• a voluntary AI Safety Standard released on 5 September 2024, comprising practical guidance in the form of ten “AI guardrails”.

Similarly, regulators ASD, in conjunction with foreign authorities such as the U.S. National Security Agency’s Artificial Intelligence Security Center, has published guidance on deploying, engaging with and developing AI systems. Further, the ASD has endorsed the Cybersecurity Performance Goals (CPGs) developed by the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Reporting Obligations

Certain data breaches relating to My Health Record information or the system itself are to be reported under Section 75 of the My Health Records Act (rather than through the NDB scheme under the Privacy Act).

Section 75 of the My Health Records Act requires a report where there has (actually or potentially) been unauthorised collection, use or disclosure of health information included in a healthcare recipient’s My Health Record or the (actual or potential) compromise of the security or integrity of the My Health Record. Such a report must be made to the relevant system operator and/or the OAIC. Subsequently, all “affected healthcare recipients” must also be notified of the compromise or unauthorised disclosure.

Other than those data breaches to which the My Health Records Act applies, medical data would generally be personal information and covered by the federal NDB scheme (see 6.1 Cybersecurity and Data Protection).