Doping is generally regarded as a criminal offence under Israeli law. All sports are currently subject to the jurisdiction of Israel’s National Anti-Doping Organisation (NADO), which operates in accordance with the rules and standards of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). As a result, WADA regulations are fully applicable at the domestic level. For example, an Israeli boxer was required to provide a urine sample following the national boxing championships.

It is important to note that certain substances which may be lawfully prescribed to the general public are nevertheless prohibited for use by athletes. For instance, cannabis may be prescribed for medical purposes in Israel, and medications such as Ritalin, commonly used to treat ADHD, are also legally available. However, such substances may still fall within the list of prohibited substances under anti-doping regulations.

A notable case involved an Israeli basketball player who took Ritalin as a prescribed medication for academic purposes, without informing his club doctor or coaching staff. After testing positive, the player was sanctioned with a six-month suspension. In a separate case, another basketball player received a six-month suspension for the use of cannabis.

In another incident, a boxer failed to provide a required sample and left the venue without authorisation. This was treated as a serious violation, resulting in a suspension of two years.

Similarly, a football player who independently purchased a protein shake from a private importer tested positive for testosterone, an anabolic steroid, found in the product. The player declined to have the B sample analysed and argued that the substance had been consumed in good faith. Nevertheless, he was sanctioned with a two-year suspension, reflecting the strict liability approach applied in anti-doping enforcement.

Gambling, match-fixing, bribery and fraud are prohibited in Israel across all sporting disciplines. The regulations of internal sporting bodies reflect this prohibition, incorporating rules against such unlawful conduct within their disciplinary frameworks. For example, breaches of Articles 20(31), 20(32), 20(33) and 20(33/2) of the Israeli Football Association Disciplinary Code may result in sanctions of up to lifetime suspension.

The Israeli Football Association (FA) is responsible for combating match-fixing and misconduct by clubs. In Israel, all players and clubs sign a standardised agreement, which includes basic terms such as salaries. However, there is also an option to attach an annex to this agreement containing additional details and conditions.

At present, a significant case has emerged involving so-called “double contracts” — one contract submitted to the FA’s budgetary supervisory authority, and a separate annex. The FA conducted a private investigation through an independent investigations firm, which revealed that a top-division football club had entered into both the official agreement and an annex with its players. Crucially, the club knowingly misled the FA by submitting only the standard agreement. This situation may have serious consequences, as there is a discrepancy between the salaries declared to the FA and the amounts actually paid to players.

This raises genuine suspicion, as such discrepancies may indicate “under-the-table” payments and, consequently, a real risk of match-fixing. The club in question has now been formally charged and is currently subject to disciplinary proceedings before the FA. If the club is found guilty, its management may face further consequences, including investigations by the tax authorities and the Corporations Authority. In this context, all individuals holding managerial positions could potentially be held liable, as Israeli law recognises vicarious liability in such cases.

The only lawful gambling operator in Israel is a state-established body – the Israel Sports Betting Board (semi-governmental, although operationally independent, hereinafter referred to as “TOTO”). This organisation derives its authority from statute, specifically the Sports Betting Regulation Law, 5727–1967. Accordingly, betting conducted through TOTO is lawful.

Nevertheless, it is well established that betting is prohibited for participants. Many football and basketball clubs explicitly stipulate in employment contracts that players are forbidden from engaging in betting activities, including those conducted through TOTO.

Furthermore, sports associations impose a blanket prohibition on betting by athletes, embedding these restrictions within their internal disciplinary regulations. A notable domestic case concerns betting in women’s football, arising largely because the women’s game is said to satisfy a particular niche demand among gamblers whilst simultaneously operating within a comparatively limited public sphere. As a consequence, relatively few people are exposed to such unlawful activity. Investigations of this nature are conducted by the FA, and any athlete found guilty may face a lifetime ban from all official football activity.

See 1.3 Betting-Related Offences.

Merchandising

Sports clubs and organisations in Israel invest considerable effort in increasing revenue from merchandise. To this end, Israeli clubs are placing growing emphasis on innovative sports technology solutions aimed at enhancing fan engagement and, consequently, improving their ability to monetise fan traffic and merchandise sales.

However, Israel is not generally regarded as an attractive market for foreign fans. As a result, clubs primarily focus on local fans, as well as Jewish fans around the world.

Most sports clubs in Israel are affiliated with a national sports centre. For instance, all “Maccabi” clubs fall under the authority of the Maccabi Israel sports centre, which, among other responsibilities, manages the rights associated with the various Maccabi logos.

With regard to intellectual property, football clubs are required, in accordance with UEFA regulations, to demonstrate that they hold the rights to use their logos, names, abbreviations, colours and related assets, thereby ensuring proper protection of club rights.

Ticketing

Clubs in Israel typically engage external service providers to manage ticket sales, from which the clubs derive revenue. Some clubs, however, operate their own ticketing systems.

In general, it is prohibited for fans to resell tickets to other supporters at prices exceeding the official face value, and such conduct is considered unlawful. Individuals engaging in this practice may face sanctions for ticket touting.

As noted above, many clubs now issue electronic tickets featuring dynamic barcodes that change each time the application is accessed. This makes it effectively impossible to resell the same ticket multiple times without detection.

Additionally, some clubs use a single barcode valid for an entire season, which reduces the likelihood that season ticket holders will transfer their tickets to unauthorised individuals, particularly supporters of opposing teams.

Hospitality

Hospitality offerings, such as VIP seating and private boxes, are widespread in Israel. These premium options are typically costly and are often included as part of broader packages offered to sponsors or private companies, which may use them to host employees or international guests.

Such hospitality services represent an additional revenue stream for clubs, enabling them to monetise the matchday experience by offering enhanced seating, catering, beverages, dedicated service staff and other exclusive amenities.

As in other jurisdictions, sport in Israel provides a valuable platform for sponsors to promote their brands. During the previous season, total attendance at football stadiums exceeded 1.5 million spectators.

At major sporting events, television ratings can reach between 15% and 18%, representing audiences of several hundred thousand viewers.

Moreover, the Israeli FA has begun broadcasting third-division matches independently in order to increase exposure for this level of competition, with the aim of attracting additional sponsors and, consequently, increasing financial support for clubs in that division.

There is no specific statutory regulation governing the categories of sponsors; instead, the matter is largely guided by accepted norms. For example, alcohol, cigarettes and smoking-related products are generally not promoted within the context of sport in Israel.

There is, of course, legislation prohibiting racism, which bars the publication of any racially discriminatory content or associated products.

Naming rights arrangements do exist in Israel, particularly in basketball, where clubs often incorporate the name of a sponsor into their official club name. This ensures that the sponsor receives consistent brand exposure whenever the club’s name is used. A similar approach applies to league sponsorships, with both football and basketball leagues promoting the names of their principal sponsors.

There are three principal sports channels in Israel that acquire broadcasting rights to sporting events through formal tender processes.

For major international tournaments intended for a general audience, key events are often also broadcast on free-to-air television channels, such as flagship events during the Olympic Games.

Broadcasters in Israel are permitted to use pay-per-view models, either on a per-match basis or through subscription packages. For example, rather than paying approximately ILS10–15 (around EUR3.50) per match, viewers may purchase monthly or annual subscriptions, typically costing around EUR20 per channel, which provide access to all matches broadcast on that channel. This may amount to over 100 matches per month for the same fee.

Broadcasters naturally promote their own services through these channels.

Leagues often sell broadcasting rights on a non-exclusive basis, partly to ensure that less affluent audiences can still access matches. Consequently, at least one of the main fixtures in each league is usually broadcast on a free-to-air channel.

In terms of intellectual property, where one broadcaster holds the rights to a full match, another channel may air a shortened version. In such cases, the latter must clearly acknowledge the original broadcaster, and the highlights must remain brief so as to encourage viewers to watch the full match on the primary rights-holder’s channel.

The proprietary rights to sporting events are primarily owned and controlled by the organisers, typically the relevant federation or association. This is particularly evident in the context of broadcasting rights, which are initially held by the federations and subsequently sold to broadcasters, thereby generating revenue.

At a more local level, home teams hold certain proprietary rights in relation to their matches. They are entitled to sell tickets and commercial space within the stadium, including areas outside the stadium. However, stadiums in Israel are generally owned by the municipality, which typically lease them to clubs on a long-term basis. Municipalities often retain control over certain commercial areas as an additional means of generating income.

Despite holding proprietary rights, clubs must comply with regulations imposed by federations and associations. These may include requirements relating to ticket allocations for minors and women, seating arrangements, pricing (for example, free entry is generally prohibited unless prior approval is obtained from the FA Secretariat), and security measures. Security arrangements must also be approved by the local police, meaning that sporting events are subject to oversight by external authorities.

In summary, although clubs hold proprietary rights over their events, they remain subject to a comprehensive regulatory framework and security requirements that govern the organisation and commercialisation of sporting events.

In Israeli law, the concept of a duty of care is a fundamental principle, as set out in the Tort Ordinance (New Version). In practice, this means that sports organisers are required to take extensive measures to ensure the safety of spectators both inside and around sporting venues.

From a security perspective, sporting events are subject to prior approval by the police, including determinations regarding the number of stewards, the deployment of police personnel and the extent of physical barriers. These measures are designed to enhance spectator safety both inside and outside the stadium. At high-profile events, entry points may also be equipped with metal detectors and pyrotechnic detection systems, in accordance with police requirements.

In addition, the police may impose alcohol screening at entrances in order to prevent intoxicated individuals from entering the venue. The police also retain the authority to cancel a sporting event, even shortly before it is due to commence, if they consider the overall circumstances to pose a risk to the safety of athletes and spectators alike.

Where necessary, away fans may be required to remain inside the stadium after the match until the police have cleared the surrounding area, thereby ensuring their safe departure.

Furthermore, in accordance with legal requirements, federations, associations, venue owners and event organisers must provide adequate facilities for spectators with disabilities, ensuring that they are able to enjoy the event on equal terms. This includes appropriate seating arrangements, as well as provisions for accompanying persons and, where relevant, assistance dogs. Failure to meet these obligations may constitute a breach of the duty of care.

As a general rule, athletes are not liable to spectators, except in cases involving direct physical assault.

Sports clubs and federations in Israel may adopt one of several legal forms: a non-governmental organisation (registered with the Registrar of NGOs), a private company, or a community interest company (both registered with the Registrar of Companies). A variety of such structures can be found even within the top leagues.

The principal differences between these forms relate to taxation, the ability to generate profit, and eligibility to receive donations with associated tax benefits. The choice of legal structure typically depends on the preferences and objectives of the club’s management.

Sports associations are generally established as NGOs, but they operate under a distinct regulatory framework. They are constituted pursuant to the Sports Law (1998–5748), which grants them authority to adopt internal rules, regulations and judicial bodies.

In Israel, NGOs are governed by the Non-Profit Organisations Law, 1980–5740, while companies (including community companies) are regulated by the Companies Law, 1999–5759. These statutory frameworks apply to all NGOs and companies, and are intended to regulate and protect shareholders, creditors, debtors, and establish proper corporate governance procedures.

The eligibility criteria for company directors are set out in Article 226 of the Companies Law. For example, minors (under the age of 18), individuals declared legally incompetent, and persons convicted of certain offences – particularly those involving fraud or moral turpitude – are disqualified from serving as directors for specified periods following completion of their sentence (eg, five years following completion of the sentence in the case of moral turpitude offences). Additional disqualifications apply in relation to offences under the Companies Law, the Securities Law and competition law, as well as to individuals barred by court order.

Directors are subject to three principal duties: a duty of loyalty, requiring them to act in the best interests of the company rather than their own; a duty of care, requiring them to act reasonably; and a duty of disclosure, obliging them to report any personal conflicts of interest in relation to company transactions.

The eligibility requirements for membership of an association’s board of directors are governed by the Associations Law. The following are prohibited from serving in such a capacity: minors under the age of 18, persons who have been declared legally incompetent (for instance, on account of a medical condition), persons convicted of an offence involving moral disgrace, and any individual disqualified by order of a court or the Registrar of Associations.

An association may, through its bylaws, establish additional eligibility conditions beyond those prescribed by law, where it considers such requirements necessary for the appointment of a board member.

A board member of an association is subject to core duties broadly equivalent to those of a company director: a duty of loyalty, requiring them to act solely in the best interests of the association and its public objectives rather than for personal gain; a duty of care, requiring them to act reasonably and fairly; and a duty of disclosure, requiring them to declare any conflicts of interest and abstain from voting on matters in which they hold a personal interest.

It is worth emphasising that the distribution of profit is strictly prohibited in non-profit organisations, representing a foundational principle of the law in this area. Given that all assets and objectives must serve the public benefit exclusively, such organisations are afforded certain advantages, including tax exemptions on donations received.

Personnel of both NGOs and companies may also be subject to criminal liability for breaching the provisions of the relevant legislation in relation to their duties. In this regard, the Bureau of Labour may summon position holders who violate employees’ rights under mandatory labour law, and the tax authority holds equivalent powers.

Of particular note, the Football Association prohibits individuals with a criminal background from being members of football clubs, and retains the power to compel clubs to remove such position holders. In cases of insolvency, federations are empowered to impose a range of sanctions on clubs, including monetary fines, points deductions and demotion to a lower league.

Sport in Israel is funded through a variety of sources, primarily private investment and donations. In addition, TOTO plays a significant role in supporting sporting activities, particularly at the amateur level, although top-division clubs also benefit from its subsidies. TOTO operates under statutory regulation, specifically the Sports Betting Regulation Law, 1967–5727.

Municipalities also provide financial support to local sports teams and initiatives, in some cases amounting to millions of Israeli shekels. Municipalities are subject to various legal obligations requiring them to distribute funding relatively equally across different sports and between men’s and women’s activities.

A further significant income stream for sports organisations derives from federations and league management bodies, which generate revenue through the monetisation of broadcasting rights, league naming rights, UEFA subsidies and similar arrangements. For leading clubs in Israel, ticket sales and merchandise can also constitute a substantial source of income.

In individual sports, athletes may draw funding from private sponsors or through arrangements with sponsors affiliated with the Olympic Committee.

In Israel, trade marks are registered with the Israeli Patent Office in accordance with the Trade Marks Ordinance (New Version), 1972–5732. The process begins with the filing of an application, followed by an examination stage and a period during which third parties may oppose the registration. If no successful opposition is raised, the trade mark is registered.

Certain marks are not eligible for registration, including those that contravene public policy or contain racist or discriminatory elements. Generic terms, misleading marks and any sign deemed contrary to public order or morality are also forbidden.

Registration confers exclusive rights upon the owner, together with a legal presumption of ownership within Israel, thereby facilitating enforcement and protection of the mark.

Notably, Israel recognises well-known trade marks even in the absence of local registration, in line with international obligations under the Paris Convention. As a result, globally recognised sports brands such as Nike or Adidas enjoy protection in Israel even without a locally registered trade mark.

Copyright protection in Israel is governed by the Copyright Law, 2007–5768, which replaced the earlier British Mandate legislation. Registration is not required, as protection arises automatically upon the creation of an original work.

For a work to qualify for protection, it must be original and fixed in a tangible form, such as a broadcast, photograph, film or written material. In the sporting context, this includes match broadcasts, club logos, training materials and other related content.

That said, registering a logo, name, initials or colours is generally understood to afford broader protection. Israeli professional football clubs are subject to UEFA requirements under the UEFA Club Licensing and Financial Sustainability framework, and must accordingly provide proof of registration of such elements, or at minimum demonstrate the right to use them – a right typically held by the national sports centre, which generally holds the relevant rights on behalf of almost every club, such as Maccabi Israel or Hapoel Centre.

The principal defence against infringement is fair use, which in Israel is assessed on a case-by-case basis. In the sporting context, the most contested area concerns broadcast rights. Israeli courts have addressed the unauthorised streaming of football matches on a number of occasions, consistently upholding the rights of broadcasters as copyright holders.

The principal legal tools in Israel include the Protection of Privacy Law (1981), which prohibits the use of an individual’s name, image or likeness for commercial purposes without their consent, and the Copyright Law (2007), which protects photographs, videos and other creative works featuring an athlete’s image. These frameworks provide both the athlete and the creator with a solid legal basis for protection.

Israeli courts have also developed protection through the doctrine of unjust enrichment, essentially holding that where a person profits from the use of another’s image without permission, compensation may be due even in the absence of a formal contractual relationship.

In addition, individuals have the right to prevent the use of their photograph without consent, particularly where minors are involved.

In practice, however, most professional athletes rely on sponsorship and endorsement agreements to safeguard their rights, rather than depending solely on statutory protections. Conversely, clubs and league organisers typically protect their position through employment contracts, under which athletes grant advance consent for the use of their name and image, often extending beyond the duration of the contractual relationship.

In Israel, personality and image rights are also protected under the Commercial Torts Law (1999), which prohibits misleading the public regarding a false association between a brand and an athlete. For example, if a club or association uses a player’s image in a way that implies a non-existent sponsorship arrangement, this may give rise to a legal claim.

The principle of unjust enrichment provides an additional layer of protection. Even where there is no explicit misrepresentation, if a third party derives benefit from an athlete’s reputation without authorisation, the athlete may still be entitled to compensation without the need to prove actual damage.

A common practical issue in sport is ambush marketing, whereby a brand seeks to associate itself with a well-known Israeli athlete or team without any formal agreement. Israeli courts have demonstrated a willingness to address such conduct through a combination of the Commercial Torts Law, unjust enrichment principles, and the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, which recognises a person’s proprietary interest in their image as part of their fundamental rights.

Although legal protection exists, athletes are generally required to enforce their rights proactively. Failure to do so may, in some circumstances, be interpreted as tacit consent to the use of their image.

In Israel, sports bodies, clubs and athletes may license their IP – including trade marks, copyright and image rights – through standard commercial agreements governed by general contract law and administered by the relevant authorities.

Professional clubs actively license their brands for merchandise, sponsorship and broadcasting purposes, thereby generating significant commercial revenue. Similarly, professional athletes license their name, image and likeness through endorsement arrangements.

A distinctive feature of the Israeli system is the role of historic sports movements such as Maccabi, Hapoel and Beitar, which hold registered trade marks protecting their names and branding across all affiliated clubs, both amateur and professional. For example, a Thai boxing group operating under the Maccabi framework benefits from the same brand protection as prominent clubs such as Maccabi Tel Aviv or Maccabi Netanya. This centralised brand structure is relatively unique and means that intellectual property protection in Israeli sport depends less on the professional status of a club and more on its affiliation with an established sports centre.

As a general rule, IP rights in Israel may be freely assigned under contract law, subject to certain important limitations.

Under the Copyright Law (2007), moral rights – such as the right to attribution and the right to the integrity of a work – are inalienable and remain with the creator permanently even after the economic rights have been transferred.

Trade marks may also be freely assigned, provided that such assignment does not mislead the public.

In the sporting context, courts may scrutinise assignment agreements involving athletes, particularly where there is a significant imbalance of power, such as in agreements involving young players. Arrangements that appear excessively one-sided or entered into under pressure may be subject to challenge.

Accordingly, while the assignment of IP rights is generally permitted in Israel, it is not without limits and remains subject to judicial oversight.

Sports data is becoming increasingly central to the operations of Israeli clubs and federations, although the market remains less developed than in leading European leagues. Israeli clubs make use of athlete performance data for training optimisation, injury prevention and talent identification, drawing on the country’s strong technological ecosystem. Fan engagement data is also collected through ticketing platforms and club applications, primarily for marketing and engagement purposes. Importantly, the collection of fan data is subject to prior consent where it is obtained via websites or applications. At the professional level, the use of wearables and GPS tracking systems has become standard practice.

From a commercial perspective, the opportunities are significant. Performance data can be monetised through broadcasters, fantasy sports platforms and, in particular, betting operators. Given the regulated nature of the sports betting market in Israel, this represents a particularly relevant and expanding area.

However, the legal framework has not fully kept pace with these developments. The Privacy Protection Law (1981) and its associated regulations impose a clear requirement for informed consent, meaning that any collection of personal data must be authorised by the individual concerned. This applies equally to athletes, fans and staff. In practice, clubs are therefore required to obtain explicit consent before collecting biometric, performance or behavioural data, creating a substantial compliance obligation that is not always consistently observed.

The primary legal framework for data protection in Israel is the Privacy Protection Law (1981), together with the Information Security Regulations (2017). These require informed consent for the collection and processing of personal data, including athlete performance data, biometric information and fan-related data.

As Israel benefits from an adequacy decision from the European Union, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) also applies directly to Israeli organisations that process the personal data of EU residents. Given the extent of cross-border activity in Israeli sport – such as player transfers, international competitions and broadcasting arrangements – this results in a genuine dual compliance obligation, with many organisations still in the process of adapting to these requirements.

In practical terms, clubs must ensure that medical and performance data shared during transfers, as well as fan databases used for marketing purposes, comply simultaneously with both Israeli law and GDPR standards.

Ongoing reforms to Israeli privacy legislation, closely modelled on the GDPR, are expected to strengthen these obligations further. As a result, robust data governance in the sports sector is increasingly becoming not only a matter of best practice, but a legal necessity.

Israeli sports law grants federations the authority to establish independent judicial bodies responsible for handling disputes and disciplinary matters. These bodies are empowered to impose both sporting and financial sanctions, and may, for example, prohibit individuals from holding official positions within clubs or organisations.

However, a significant tension exists between sports judicial bodies and the wider legal system, particularly in relation to employment rights – players being classified as employees under Israeli law. Specifically, there is a considerable conflict between the ADR mechanisms of sports associations and the Israeli labour courts, which hold exclusive jurisdiction over disputes concerning mandatory employment rights. Whilst sports association arbitration bodies possess considerable expertise in the particular circumstances of professional athletes – such as the obligation to work on rest days, restrictions on freedom of movement, and the right to select rest days during the playing season – only the labour courts are competent to adjudicate on matters touching upon such fundamental statutory rights.

In response to this ongoing tension, the Israeli FA recently launched a parallel internal arbitration procedure, operational since July 2025, comprising retired labour court judges capable of handling mandatory rights disputes. This mechanism is still in its infancy, and it remains to be seen whether it can successfully navigate the inherent conflict between the labour courts and sports associations’ ADR mechanisms.

Most sports federations and associations in Israel maintain their own internal judicial bodies, which may include disciplinary committees and arbitration panels. As noted, the Israeli Sports Law expressly authorises the establishment of such internal judicial bodies.

However, certain smaller or less prominent federations do not operate their own internal bodies. In such cases, disputes may be referred to a central arbitration body serving multiple sports federations. This framework provides an alternative to civil litigation, which is often slower, less specialised and less attuned to the time-sensitive nature of sporting competitions and seasons.

Federations that rely on this central arbitration body recognise its authority to resolve disputes between athletes and clubs from the same federation or association.

The Israeli Sports Law empowers sports governing bodies to establish internal judicial systems, including disciplinary committees, arbitration panels and mediation mechanisms. These bodies operate with a degree of independence and are not strictly bound by civil procedural rules or case law, although they often reflect similar legal principles. One of the underlying objectives is to limit recourse to civil courts, except in exceptional circumstances, such as where a decision is alleged to contravene public policy.

Sports governing bodies also possess effective enforcement tools. They can ensure compliance with internal decisions by imposing sanctions – financial or sporting – on parties that fail to abide by rulings issued through ADR mechanisms.

In relation to external decisions, such as those of the civil labour courts, sports governing bodies enforce compliance through a practical mechanism tied to the annual budget confirmation process. At the commencement of each sporting season, football clubs must demonstrate that no final and binding verdict is outstanding against them in order to receive their yearly budget approval. This requirement serves as an effective lever for ensuring adherence to external legal decisions.

Those wishing to challenge such decisions retain the right to approach the civil courts, provided they can establish a legal basis for doing so under the relevant legislation.

All contractual relationships between clubs and professional athletes in Israel must be governed by a valid written contract (or another form of document setting out working conditions). This requirement is enshrined in local law. Accordingly, sports associations, in order to safeguard clubs, require them to engage players under a standard minimum contract, which sets out the respective rights and obligations of each party and specifies the basic terms relating to salary, scope of work, social rights, and similar matters.

At certain amateur league levels, there is no mandatory standard contract, and these athletes may be considered employees. In the event of a dispute, this will be determined on a case-by-case basis.

There is no salary cap in Israel, though agents representing basketball players are required to operate within salary cap restrictions. Anti-competitive clauses in contracts are prohibited, and whilst such restrictions are rarely encountered in managerial positions, Israeli jurisprudence may permit them provided the individual receives prospective compensation. In any event, such clauses are of no practical relevance to sportsmen and women, principally because Israel is bound by the rules and regulations of the relevant international associations, which effectively prohibit such restrictions.

Sports governing bodies must comply with national laws governing the employer–employee relationship. These rules are strongly employee-oriented, on the basis that employers are regarded as the financially stronger party and therefore hold greater power in the employment relationship.

As noted, there is a significant tension concerning the authority of ADR bodies to deal with disputes involving mandatory rights. Recent case law has addressed this issue directly, establishing that purely contractual disputes may be referred to ADR bodies and sports governing authorities. However, where a dispute involves mandatory statutory rights, jurisdiction rests with the labour courts.

In general, the labour courts recognise the specific nature of sport. In two recent cases, Zubas v Bnei Yehuda and Amos v Maccabi Netanya, it was held, inter alia, that although players are entitled to minimum rest days during the season and to additional payment for working at weekends, the unique characteristics of sporting activity must be taken into account. Consequently, the labour court rejected the players’ claims for compensation for working on weekends and rest days, as well as their claims for compensation for being unable to exercise their entitlement to a day off during the season. The court concluded that players may instead take their rest periods during the interval between the end of one season and the start of the next.

The Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation is one of Israel’s constitutional Basic Laws, protecting every person’s right to engage in any occupation, profession or trade of their choosing. In practical terms, the state cannot prevent a person from working, opening a business or participating in any economic activity without sound justification. Public policy serves as the primary limiting principle – a person may not, for instance, open a business selling illegal substances, nor operate a food business without the requisite permits.

As with any fundamental right, freedom of occupation is not absolute and may be restricted by the state, but only where such restrictions are grounded in law or justified by public policy considerations.

In the sporting context, this law carries considerable weight. Player transfer restrictions – rules limiting a player’s ability to move freely between clubs – prima facie conflict with the principle of freedom of occupation. Israeli courts have nonetheless generally upheld such restrictions on the basis that they serve legitimate objectives, namely promoting fair competition and protecting smaller clubs’ ability to retain their players.

To prevent clubs from exploiting this balance entirely to their own advantage, the Israeli Sports Law provides athletes of all ages with a mechanism to initiate transfer proceedings through the relevant association. Under this process, a player may be transferred within a defined period, typically subject to compensation payable to their current club, with the specific conditions varying by age group. Some associations further regulate this process by capping the number of players that may be transferred within a given period, in the interest of maintaining competitive stability.

Finally, sports agents in Israel are required to pass a licensing examination administered either by the relevant international federation or the local association. Whilst this represents a restriction on entry to the profession, it is considered lawful and proportionate.

Women’s sport in Israel is well developed, with female athletes competing across a wide range of disciplines – both individual sports, such as judo, taekwondo and gymnastics, and team sports including football and basketball.

In women’s basketball, Elitzur Ramle and the former Ramat HaSharon club are regarded as historically competitive sides with a notable European pedigree. Ramle won the Women’s EuroCup in 2011, whilst Ramat HaSharon finished as runners-up in 1999. Attendances are currently at record levels, with thousands of spectators attending national team matches, and television broadcasters have responded by increasing their coverage of women’s fixtures. The FA holds responsibility for media rights and league sponsorship in women’s football, conducting tenders among the principal broadcasting companies — of which there are mainly three in Israel – for the right to broadcast the league.

In individual sports, the success of a number of female athletes has brought greater financial investment and sponsorship, elevating these women to the status of stars and role models for young people of all genders. Israeli women have achieved remarkable results on the international stage, including Olympic gold in floor gymnastics, an Olympic silver medal in judo, a World Championship medal in sailing, gold at the European Championship in the 10,000 metres, and a bronze medal at the World Championship in the marathon. Israeli women are free to participate in any sport of their choosing, and their achievements continue to raise the profile of women’s sport across the country.

The Israeli Government Sports Bureau recently resolved to restrict the annual subsidy for sports clubs to those that actively promote women’s sporting activities. As a result, the vast majority of sports clubs have initiated plans to introduce and develop women’s programmes. The Football Association has gone further, requiring clubs to field at least one under-18 women’s team in addition to a senior women’s side participating in one of the women’s football leagues, as a condition of receiving UEFA licensing under the UEFA Club Licensing and Financial Sustainability framework. Clubs that cannot afford to establish an additional team due to budgetary constraints may fulfil their obligations in other ways, such as bringing youth department players to women’s league matches or organising dedicated activities for female fans, including women’s fan zone initiatives.

The Israeli esports industry has grown considerably over the past decade, driven in large part by Israel’s status as a leading sports-tech nation. The Israeli Esports Association (IESA) was established during this period and serves as the principal regulator of the esports sector, as well as Israel’s member organisation within the International Esports Federation (IESF).

In 2017, Israel hosted its first major esports tournament in Tel Aviv, attracting around 5,000 participants. The following year, the Israeli Ministry of Sports announced an investment of millions of shekels in esports infrastructure, encompassing dedicated arenas and international tournaments. Israeli esports teams compete in international competitions, including League of Legends and racing events.

Israel’s broader gaming industry represents a significant economic force, employing over 8,000 professionals and generating in excess of USD2 billion annually, with Playtika and Overwolf among its globally recognised leading companies.

The esports sector is increasingly characterised by collaboration with traditional sports organisations, broadcasters and brands through sponsorship arrangements and media coverage, alongside growing investment in dedicated gaming arenas, training facilities and event venues.

Technologically, Israel is positioning itself as an innovation hub in this space. Israeli founders are actively developing AI-powered creation systems, platforms and technical infrastructure that underpin future interactive experiences, and the country’s expertise in mobile gaming, virtual reality, augmented reality and blockchain places it as a significant player in the global ecosystem. The industry has matured considerably, with 143 active companies, disclosed exits valued at approximately USD3.65 billion, and 52 of 63 gaming studios concentrating on mobile titles.

The key distinction is that Israel is emerging as the “Start-Up Nation” of esports technology and infrastructure, rather than of competitive gaming per se – its focus lying in the tools, platforms and innovations that power the global industry rather than in fielding elite competitive teams.

NFTs have yet to gain meaningful traction in Israeli sport, even as clubs worldwide have embraced digital tokens as a means of engaging fans and generating new revenue streams.

The most notable domestic example is the Maccabi World Union’s “Project Max”, which transformed iconic Maccabiah Games memorabilia into digital collectibles, making a piece of Jewish sporting history accessible to fans across the globe.

Israeli start-up M51 also identified the opportunity at an early stage, proposing the concept of sports clubs selling digital versions of their merchandise – a Maccabi Tel Aviv shirt as an NFT rather than a physical product, for instance.

The legal landscape remains uncertain. Tokens that confer voting rights on fans could fall within the scope of Israeli securities law, and FIFA maintains its own regulations regarding outside influence on clubs. The door is open, but no major Israeli club has yet stepped through it.

Israel has no dedicated sports-specific AI legislation. The principal applicable frameworks are the Privacy Protection Law, 1981-5741 – which is currently undergoing significant reform encompassing data protection, user consent for the collection and use of personal information, pre-approval requirements for data scraping, and the right to correct personal data – and the Israeli Innovation Authority’s ethical guidelines on AI, neither of which were designed with sport specifically in mind.

Clubs are exploring AI applications across performance analytics, injury prediction, scouting and fan engagement, whilst sponsors are leveraging AI for targeted advertising and real-time audience insights, with most drawing on the expertise of local technology companies. The opportunities are considerable, spanning smarter scouting, personalised fan experiences and operational efficiency.

At the same time, genuine risks exist around athlete data privacy, potential information leaks, the grey area of automated data collection, and the possibility of biased algorithms influencing player selection. Israel remains technologically progressive, but sport-specific AI regulation is lagging behind – the rules are being written whilst the game is already well underway.

The metaverse remains largely experimental in Israel, with no dedicated legal framework governing it and little meaningful demand from clubs or associations. The closest applicable regulatory instruments are general laws covering consumer protection, privacy and securities.

In practical terms, metaverse activity in Israel is modest. The Maccabiah Games’ NFT project touched the periphery of the metaverse through digital collectibles, and whilst Israeli technology companies are actively building metaverse infrastructure for global markets, local sports organisations have yet to launch any substantive virtual fan experiences.

The opportunities are nonetheless real, encompassing virtual stadiums, fan engagement unconstrained by geography, new sponsorship inventory and immersive athlete experiences – all of which are achievable given Israel’s robust technology ecosystem.

The legal risks are equally significant. In relation to intellectual property and image rights, virtual environments give rise to new unauthorised use scenarios for which no clear Israeli legal remedy yet exists. Given the existence of general laws protecting the use of minors’ images, this risk is particularly acute. On consumer protection, virtual goods and experiences sold to fans occupy a regulatory grey zone, though the current Consumer Protection Law, 1981-5741, appears to offer broad protection for consumers making virtual purchases. Data privacy presents a further concern, as immersive metaverse environments collect deeply personal behavioural data, raising serious issues under Israel’s evolving Privacy Protection Law.