The Markets in Crypto-Assets Regulation (MiCAR) was approved by the European Parliament in a plenary session on 20 April 2023. In that same plenary session, the European Parliament approved a recast of the Transfer of Funds Regulation (Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on information accompanying transfers of funds and certain crypto-assets (recast)) which will include transfers of crypto-assets in its scope of application. The text aims to ensure that crypto-transfers can always be traced and suspicious transactions blocked, as is the case with any other financial operation. The so-called “travel rule”, already used in traditional finance, will in future cover transfers of crypto-assets. Information on the source of the asset and its beneficiary will have to “travel” with the transaction and be stored on both sides of the transfer. Both texts (MiCAR and the Transfer of Funds Regulation recast) were published in the EU Official Journal on 9 June 2023. The texts entered into force on 30 June 2023 and will apply from  30 December 2024. For more information, please see: https://www.dlapiper.com/en-cl/insights/publications/2023/06/mica-tfr-the-two-new-pillars-of-the-eu-cryptoassets-regulatory-framework.

In March 2023, the Belgian Secretary of State for Digitalisation, Mathieu Michel, launched “Blockchain4Belgium”. This initiative aims to become a platform for industry players, academics, civil society and the various authorities involved (economy, finance, justice, etc). More than 500 professionals have already signed up and are supporting this initiative. Their goal is to present findings and recommendations to the Belgian federal government, with a view to formulating a plan for the strategic development and deployment of blockchain.

The National Bank of Belgium (NBB) has said in its 2022 annual report that recent events in the stablecoin markets, such as the collapse of the third largest stablecoin TerraUSD or the bankruptcy of the crypto exchange FTX, have highlighted the importance of consumer protection rules for crypto-assets. According to the NBB, some stablecoins, which are linked to the value of official currencies such as the euro, also pose a risk to payment systems or monetary sovereignty if they are accepted as a means of payment. This justifies a legislative initiative such as MiCAR.

In 2022, awaiting the entry into force of MiCAR, the Financial Services and Markets Authority (FSMA) adopted the Virtual Currency Distribution Regulation and issued the Crypto-assets Classification Communication (see 2.1 Regulatory Overview).

In December 2022, The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) finalised a standard on the prudential treatment of banks’ crypto-asset exposures.

Keyrock is one of Belgium’s most successful blockchain start-ups. It is a technology-driven digital asset market maker, active on over 85 trading venues worldwide. With its proprietary algorithmic technologies, Keyrock provides scalable, adaptable liquidity solutions for marketplaces and asset issuers. Founded in 2017, it currently has offices in Belgium and the UK and over 100 team members across the world.

SettleMint is another successful blockchain start-up. It is a platform-as-a-service company with a scalable, low-code, infrastructure-agnostic solution that allows enterprise developers to quickly create and deploy blockchain-based applications. In 2019, the company developed a securities trading proof of concept for Standard Chartered. In January 2020, the company raised EUR1.9 million from KPN Ventures, with US investor Medici Ventures also participating in the round.

NGRAVE is yet another promising Belgian start-up. It offers the first complete solution for self-custody, consisting of a connectionless and highest security certified (EAL7) hardware wallet, ZERO, and an encrypted and recoverable key backup, GRAPHENE. Binance Labs, the venture capital arm and accelerator of Binance, made a strategic investment in the company in November 2022.

Belgium-based investment firm NXMH is reported to have owned an 80% equity stake in cryptocurrency exchange Bitstamp since 2018. NXMH is a pan-European investment firm with EUR3 billion of assets under management.

To date, no noteworthy decentralised finance (DeFi) initiatives have sprouted on Belgian soil. There is no regulatory guidance on DeFi yet.

Apart from the occasional anecdotal project – such as the Dutch art student who “sold his soul” in the form of a non-fungible token (NFT), or the Belgian artist VEXX who had an artwork featured in an event that took place in Times Square – NFTs are not especially known or popular among the general public in Belgium.

The Belgian company Venly runs an NFT marketplace.

The Belgian multi-asset tracker Delta has integrated a mobile NFT explorer with its services.

The VASP Act (see below) prohibits third-country (non-EEA) virtual currency exchange and custodial wallet providers that are not registered with the FSMA from offering their services in Belgium. The VASP Royal Decree sets out the registration requirements. The FSMA has issued two regulations, and several communications and warnings relating to cryptocurrencies and associated phenomena. The NBB has issued a circular.

The AML Act

The fifth Anti-Money Laundering Directive (AMLD5, Directive 2018/843 of 30 May 2018 amending Directive 2015/849 on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purposes of money laundering or terrorist financing) broadened the personal scope of regulatory requirements under anti-money laundering and terrorist financing (AML/CFT) rules and regulations to include “providers of exchange services between virtual currencies and fiat currencies” and “custodian wallet providers” (together referred to as VASPs).

Belgium implemented AMLD5 and its predecessor legislation in the Act of 18 September 2017 on the prevention of money laundering and terrorist financing and on the restriction of the use of cash, as amended from time to time (the “AML Act”).

In summary, the AML Act provides that:

• VASPs are subject to AML/CFT laws and regulations, including know-your-customer (KYC) due diligence requirements;
• it is prohibited for VASPs governed by the laws of a third country (ie, non-EEA jurisdictions) to carry out virtual asset exchange services or custodian wallet services in Belgium; and
• VASPs with an establishment or electronic infrastructure in Belgium must register with the Belgian competent authority (the FSMA).

The VASP Act and Royal Decree

Ban on third-country VASPs

On 21 February 2022, the act amending the AML Act to introduce provisions on the status and supervision of service providers for the exchange between virtual assets and fiat currencies and custodian wallet providers (the “VASP Act”) entered into force.

The VASP Act introduces a prohibition on natural persons and legal entities domiciled in or governed by the laws of a non-EEA jurisdiction (third country) providing, on a professional basis, exchange services between virtual currencies and fiat currencies and custodian wallet services on Belgian territory. The Act also brings all ATMs on Belgian territory that enable the exchange of virtual assets against fiat currency within the FSMA’s supervision.

In practice, the legislature expects third-country VASPs to establish an entity in Belgium or another EEA jurisdiction and to operate via that entity in Belgium.

The prohibition only applies to providers of exchange services when they offer to exchange virtual currencies and fiat currencies (crypto-to-fiat or fiat-to-crypto) with their own capital. It does not apply to platforms where users of the platform can exchange virtual assets between each other, nor does the prohibition apply to exchange services where one virtual asset is exchanged for another (crypto-to-crypto). Furthermore, the Act does not cover initial coin offerings (ICOs).

The VASP Act sanctions non-compliance with criminal sanctions (imprisonment from one month to one year and/or a fine of EUR400 to EUR80,000). These criminal sanctions supplement the pre-existing administrative sanctions for non-compliance with AML/CFT obligations (such as fines up to EUR5 million or 10% of the annual turnover, whichever is higher).

Registration conditions for VASPs

All VASPs with an establishment or electronic infrastructure in Belgium must register with the FSMA.

The Royal Decree of 8 February 2022 on the regulation and supervision of virtual assets services providers (the “VASP Royal Decree”) lays down the rules and conditions for registration with the FSMA, the conditions for carrying out these activities, and the supervision that such service providers are subject to. The VASP Royal Decree entered into force on 1 May 2022.

Furthermore, the FSMA published an FAQ on its website (https://www.fsma.be/en) to assist VASPs with the application of the new regulatory framework.

The obligation to register with the FSMA applies to:

• VASPs domiciled in or governed by the laws of Belgium who provide, on Belgian territory, virtual asset services;
• VASPs domiciled in or governed by the laws of another EEA country having a branch or any other form of permanent establishment in Belgium; and
• VASPs domiciled in or governed by the laws of another EEA country with electronic infrastructure, in particular ATMs, in Belgium.

Third-country VASPs seeking to provide virtual assets exchange services or custodian wallet services must set up a legal entity in the EEA before they can register with the FSMA.

It is not relevant whether the VASP carries out the activity as its principal or ancillary activity. Undertakings that are already regulated under other financial services laws remain subject to the registration requirement but benefit from less comprehensive registration conditions.

The VASP Royal Decree introduces detailed requirements that VASPs must meet on a permanent basis.

The key requirements are:

• establishment of a company with a minimum capital of EUR50,000;
• central administration in Belgium;
• the persons responsible for the effective management are natural persons who meet fit and proper conditions;
• suitability of shareholders;
• compliance with the AML Act;
• organisational requirements; and
• payment of a financial contribution to the FSMA.

The FSMA applies the VASP requirements strictly; after nine applications, there are currently no authorised VASPs in Belgium.

Virtual Currency Distribution Regulation

The FSMA noted that virtual currencies are being promoted to the general public on social media and by celebrities who often have no particular qualifications in finance but use their celebrity status as a sales argument. Certain categories of people, such as minors, are in some cases targeted specifically, despite their vulnerability. To address this phenomenon, and while awaiting the entry into force and application of MiCAR, the FSMA issued the Regulation of 5 January 2023 “placing restrictive conditions on the distribution of virtual currencies to consumers” (the “Virtual Currency Distribution Regulation”). This Regulation was approved by a Royal Decree of 8 February 2023 and entered into force on 17 May 2023.

The Regulation defines certain obligations that must be complied with in connection with the advertisements disseminated to consumers when distributing virtual currencies in Belgium as a regular professional activity or on an occasional basis for compensation. It imposes various obligations, including the following.

• Rules as to content, to ensure that advertisements are not inaccurate or misleading.
• The insertion of mandatory statements – in particular, the statement “Virtual currency, real risks. The only guarantee in crypto is risk.” as well as a longer warning summing up the main risks associated with an investment in virtual currencies that is to be included at the beginning of each advertisement.
• The obligation to notify all advertisements to be used in a mass media campaign to the FSMA at least ten days before their dissemination, in the form in which they will be disseminated.

On its website, the FSMA has published a Communication detailing the procedures for prior notification of advertisements for virtual currencies as part of a mass media campaign, as well as FAQs that summarize the main questions that may arise in this regard. More information on the Virtual Currency Distribution Regulation can be found at: https://www.dlapiper.com/en/insights/publications/2023/03/marketing-virtual-currencies-in-belgium

The Marketing Prohibition Regulation

On 3 April 2014, the FSMA issued the Regulation of the Financial Services and Markets Authority “on the prohibition on marketing of certain financial products to non-professional clients” (the “Marketing Prohibition Regulation”), which entered into force on 1 July 2014. This regulation prohibits the professional marketing in Belgium to one or more retail clients of, among others, financial products, the return on which is directly or indirectly dependent on “virtual money”. The Marketing Prohibition Regulation only applies in respect of derivatives of virtual money, not in respect of the virtual money itself.

The term “virtual money” is defined for the purposes of the regulation as “each form of non-regulated digital money without legal tender”. In the explanatory note to the Regulation, Bitcoin is quoted as an example of virtual money. Since 2014, however, many types of crypto-asset have been developed that are unlike Bitcoin and that do not have typical “currency” characteristics. It is unclear to what extent the Regulation applies to novel types of crypto-asset, and clarification can and should be sought with the FSMA in this respect prior to the launch of a product.

Circular NBB_2019_20

On 13 March 2019, the Basel Committee issued a “statement on crypto-assets”. In this statement, the Basel Committee warns of the risks related to crypto-assets. It then sets out the measures it expects banks to take if they acquire crypto-asset exposures or provide related services.

As a follow-up to the Basel Committee’s statement, the NBB released Circular NBB_2019_20 “on expectations regarding activities related to crypto-assets” on 19 July 2019. This Circular is addressed to the financial undertakings under the NBB’s supervision. The NBB deemed that the substance of the Basel Committee statement was also relevant for other financial undertakings. It therefore decided to issue Circular NBB_2019_20 to reiterate the Basel Committee’s statement and to extend its scope to also include non-banks under its supervision.

The FSMA Crypto-assets Classification Communication

On 22 November 2022, the FSMA issued Communication No FSMA_2022_25, entitled “Classification of crypto-assets as securities, investment instruments or financial instruments” (the “FSMA Crypto-assets Classification Communication”). The Communication applies to crypto-assets that are offered to the public. In it, the FSMA provides explanations of the most common cases where crypto-assets may fall within the scope of the prospectus rules or the MiFID conduct of business rules, or both. In particular, it clarifies the various steps that may help with the classification of crypto-assets and briefly addresses the consequences of that classification. A stepwise plan is provided in the annex to the Communication to help the reader with the classification.

The FSMA ICO Communication

On 13 November 2017, the FSMA issued Communication No FSMA_2017_20, entitled “Initial Coin Offerings (ICOs)” (the “FSMA ICO Communication”). In this text, which is considered soft law, the FSMA endorses the statements by the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) on ICOs, in which ESMA has determined that, depending on how ICOs are structured, various financial regulations – such as the Prospectus Directive, the Markets in Financial Instruments Directive (MiFID), the Alternative Investment Fund Managers Directive (AIFMD), the Market Abuse Regulation (MAR), etc – may apply. The legislation and regulations outlined below may, the FSMA further states, apply to ICOs in Belgium.

The New Prospectus Act

The new Prospectus Regulation (2017/1129) has been implemented in Belgium by the Act of 11 July 2018 “on the public offering of investment instruments and the admission of investment instruments to trading on a regulated market” (the “New Prospectus Act”). The New Prospectus Act repealed the Act of 16 June 2006 “on public offers of investment instruments and the admission of investment instruments to trading on regulated markets” (the “Old Prospectus Act”) and has fully applied since 21 July 2019.

General Laws and Regulations That May Apply to Blockchain Services

Save for the AML Act, as amended by the VASP Act, and the Marketing Prohibition Regulation, there are no Belgian (hard) laws or regulations that specifically target blockchain or cryptocurrencies. Consequently, any type of crypto-asset, as well as any related service, must be analysed from the perspective of existing laws and concepts. A selection of Belgian laws that may be relevant to blockchain service providers is discussed below.

The prospectus regime

Among other things, Belgian prospectus legislation:

• deals with the requirement of preparing a prospectus to be approved by the FSMA or an information note in the event of a public offering of investment instruments within the territory of Belgium;
• establishes a monopoly on intermediation for the placement of investment instruments within the territory of Belgium; and
• determines that advertisements used in connection with a public offering must receive prior approval from the FSMA.

Unlike the old Prospectus Directive (2003/71/EC) and the new Prospectus Regulation (2017/1129), both the Old Prospectus Act and the New Prospectus Act do not use the notion of “securities” to determine the material scope of the prospectus regime. Instead, they use the significantly broader notion of “investment instruments”. This latter concept includes securities, but also comprises a whole range of additional instruments (such as money market instruments, futures, forward rate agreements and equity swaps), as well as the residual category of “all other instruments that enable a financial investment, irrespective of the underlying assets”.

Consequently, depending on the structure of the token issued in an ICO, there may be a high chance that the token qualifies as an investment instrument and therefore falls within the scope of the Belgian prospectus regime.

The Belgian prospectus legislation also establishes an intermediation monopoly. Only the entities mentioned in Article 21, Section 1 of the New Prospectus Act, which are all regulated entities, are allowed to act as intermediaries for the purposes of the placement of investment instruments within the territory of Belgium. Consequently, if a token qualifies as an investment instrument and is placed in Belgium, only regulated entities can act as intermediaries (with certain limited exceptions).

Consumer protection

If a token qualifies as an investment instrument for the purposes of the prospectus legislation discussed above, the token will also qualify as a financial product and will thus fall within the ambit of, in particular, the Royal Decree of 25 April 2014 “on certain information obligations in respect of the marketing of financial products to non-professional clients” (the “Information Obligations Decree”). As its name suggests, this Decree provides for certain information obligations that must be complied with when professionally marketing financial products to retail clients.

Furthermore, when the service offered in respect of a crypto-asset qualifies as a financial service, Book VI of the Belgian Code of Economic Law, containing various consumer protection provisions, applies. A financial service is defined in this Code as “each banking service or service relating to lending, insurance, individual pensions, investments and payments”.

Crowdfunding

Blockchain platforms that provide crowdfunding-type services will likely fall within the ambit of the Belgian Act of 18 December 2016 “on the recognition and definition of crowdfunding and containing various provisions on finance” (the “Crowdfunding Act”). This Act regulates crowd-lending and equity-based crowdfunding in Belgium.

The Crowdfunding Act sets out the licensing and operating requirements for alternative funding platforms as well as the conduct of business rules that apply to the providers of alternative funding services. An alternative funding service, dubbed by the FSMA as “the financial form of crowdfunding”, is defined in Article 4(1) of the Crowdfunding Act as: “[T]he service consisting of commercialising investment instruments, through a website or any other electronic means, issued by entrepreneur-issuers, starter funds or funding vehicles in the framework of an offering, public or otherwise, without the provision of an investment service regarding these investment instruments, with the exception of, as applicable, the following services: (i) provision of investment advice and (ii) receiving and transmitting orders.”

Each individual or legal entity that professionally provides such alternative funding services within the territory of Belgium is deemed an alternative funding platform pursuant to Article 4(2) of the Crowdfunding Act (unless that individual or legal entity is a regulated undertaking).

The Investment Services Act

Another important piece of legislation that may apply is the Act of 25 October 2016 on the access to the investment services business and on the status and supervision of companies for asset management and investment advice (the “Investment Services Act”). The Investment Services Act will only apply if the crypto-assets qualify as “financial instruments” in the sense of MiFID II. Pure investment tokens are likely to qualify as financial instruments and therefore trigger the application of the Investment Services Act. If the Investment Services Act applies, the exchange will need to have or obtain a licence from the FSMA or the NBB to provide “investment services or activities”, which include, among others:

• receiving and transferring buy and sell orders;
• placing financial instruments;
• offering investment advice; and
• asset management.

Payment services

The offering of payment services is a regulated activity in Belgium under the Belgian Act of 11 March 2018 “on the legal status and the supervision of payment institutions and electronic money institutions, the access to the undertaking of the payment service provider and to the activity of issuing electronic money, and the access to payment systems” (the “Payment Institutions Act”), which implements the Payment Services Directive (EU) 2015/2366 (PSD II).

The Payment Institutions Act regulates the following payment services:

• services enabling cash to be placed on a payment account as well as all the operations required for operating a payment account;
• services enabling cash withdrawals from a payment account as well as all the operations required for operating a payment account;
• execution of payment transactions, including transfers of funds on a payment account with the user’s payment service provider or with another payment service provider (execution of direct debits, payment transactions through a payment instrument and credit transfers, including permanent payment orders);
• execution of payment transactions where the funds are covered by a credit line for a payment service user (execution of direct debits, payment transactions through a payment instrument and credit transfers, including permanent payment orders);
• issuing of payment instruments and acquiring of payment transactions;
• money remittance;
• payment initiation services; and
• account information services.

The exemptions, as outlined under PSD II, also apply in Belgium. The exemptions that are regularly invoked in the fintech sphere are:

• the limited network exemption;
• the commercial agent exemption; and
• the technical service provider exemption.

Since the implementation of PSD II, banks have been required to provide third parties (such as payment initiation or account aggregation providers) access to a customer’s account data, upon the latter’s request. The main reason is to facilitate new business models that depend heavily on access to such data.

So far, Belgium has not purposefully implemented standards applicable to the blockchain sector proposed by international bodies such as the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) or the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), other than to the extent such standards are already reflected in EU legislation implemented in Belgian law.

In December 2022, The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) finalised a standard on the prudential treatment of banks’ crypto-asset exposures. From an EU perspective, the BCBS standard complements the forthcoming regulation of the crypto-asset sector through MiCAR. The members of the Group of Central Bank Governors and Heads of Supervision, the oversight body of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, agreed to implement the standard by 1 January 2025, and tasked the BCBS with monitoring the implementation and effects of the standard.

Financial supervision in Belgium is based on a Twin Peaks model, according to which there are two autonomous supervising bodies: the NBB and the FSMA. The NBB is responsible for the prudential supervision of individual financial institutions at both macro and micro levels, while the FSMA is responsible for the monitoring of the proper functioning, transparency and integrity of the financial markets as well as for the supervision of unlawful offerings of products and financial services. Furthermore, Belgian banks are fully or partially subject to the supervision of the European Central Bank.

There are no self-regulatory organisations or trade groups that perform regulatory or quasi-regulatory roles with respect to businesses or individuals using blockchain in Belgium.

On 26 February 2020, there was an important decision by the Commercial Court of Nanterre, France in the case of Bitspread v Paymium. This decision is also relevant from a Belgian law perspective, given the common origin of Belgian and French civil law. Firstly, the Nanterre court implicitly held that Bitcoin was susceptible to ownership. Secondly, the court ruled that, upon borrowing bitcoins, a borrower acquires full ownership of the bitcoins. This implies that the borrower is entitled to the fruits of the bitcoins. In the case at hand, this meant that the borrower (Bitspread), and not the lender (Paymium), was entitled to receive Bitcoin Cash resulting from the Bitcoin blockchain’s first hard fork.

No enforcement actions relating to blockchain have been brought and made public in Belgium during the past 12 months.

The DLT Pilot Regime

In 2022, Regulation (EU) 2022/858 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2022 “on a pilot regime for market infrastructures based on distributed ledger technology, and amending Regulations (EU) No 600/2014 and (EU) No 909/2014 and Directive 2014/65/EU” (the “DLT Pilot Regime Regulation”) was adopted. It applies from 23 March 2023.

By establishing a temporary common EU pilot regime for financial services based on distributed ledger technology (DLT), the regulation aims to remove regulatory barriers to the issuing, trading and settlement of crypto-assets that are financial instruments and to help regulators gain experience in the use of DLT. It covers:

• the granting, withdrawal and modification of permission, including exemptions and compensatory or corrective measures, to operate DLT market infrastructure;
• the operation and supervision of DLT market infrastructure; and
• the co-operation between DLT market infrastructure operators, national authorities and ESMA.

For market participants that satisfy the conditions and receive authorisation from the competent authority, the DLT Pilot Regime offers certain temporary exemptions from regulatory requirements that would normally apply to traditional market infrastructures, subject to compliance with specific requirements for each type of exemption. More information on the DLT Pilot Regime can be found at: https://www.dlapiper.com/en/insights/publications/2022/12/tokenized-securities-and-blockchain-opportunities-of-the-dlt-pilot-regime

The FinTech Contact Point

Although there is no regulatory sandbox in place other than the abovementioned DLT pilot regime, Belgium can be seen as a fintech-friendly jurisdiction.

For new business models in the fintech realm, the FSMA launched a FinTech Contact Point in June 2016. This contact point is designed as a portal through which fintech entrepreneurs can contact the financial markets supervisor. This allows entrepreneurs to familiarise themselves with financial legislation and to ask any questions they may have. It also enables the FSMA to closely monitor fintech developments in Belgium. In April 2017, the portal launched by the FSMA evolved into a joint portal of the FSMA and the NBB. Fintech players, who are not necessarily aware of the Twin Peaks supervision model in Belgium, thus have a single point of contact; they do not need to find out in advance to which supervisor they must put their questions. Questions lodged with the fintech portal are managed jointly by the FSMA and NBB teams. Since the launch of the fintech portal in 2016, well over 100 fintech entrepreneurs have reached out to the supervisory authorities. Their questions have covered a wide range of topics, such as crypto-assets, robo-advice and crowdfunding.

The Fintech Contact Point will continue to be helpful in guiding start-ups and established firms through the complex regulatory framework and the licensing process. Both the FSMA and the NBB tend to be approachable and supportive of new fintech business models.

Corporate Income Tax

The Office for Advance Tax Rulings has confirmed, in a ruling dated 8 May 2018, that all gains from investments in cryptocurrencies and ICOs made by Belgian companies are taxable and all losses are tax-deductible.

Personal Income Tax

The income tax treatment of investments in cryptocurrencies by individuals is subject to general tax rules and depends on the relevant facts and circumstances.

A capital gain realised within the framework of one’s professional activity will be taxed as professional income at progressive rates ranging between 25% and 50% plus local charges. If the cryptocurrencies are held as private assets, the capital gains will be exempt from individual income tax if the transaction qualifies as a normal act of management. This has been confirmed by the Office for Advance Tax Rulings in several recent rulings. If the transaction does not qualify as a normal act of management, the capital gains will be taxable as miscellaneous income at a rate of 33% plus local charges. The qualification of a transaction as a normal act of management is highly fact-driven, which renders this the most significant tax uncertainty in Belgium in this context.

Legal certainty on the applicable tax treatment can be obtained by filing a ruling request with the Office for Advance Tax Rulings. This Office has published a list of questions that should allow both the taxpayer and the tax authorities to determine the appropriate tax treatment.

VAT

In the Hedqvist case (Skatteverket v David Hedqvist, C-264/14, dated 22 October 2015), the European Court of Justice ruled that the sale of non-traditional currencies falls under the same VAT exemption as transactions relating to traditional currencies. The Belgian VAT administration has included that decision in its administrative commentary without noteworthy remark.

For the qualification of mining-services for VAT purposes, the administrative commentary makes a distinction regarding whether or not the identity of the purchaser is (un)known by the service provider (miner). If mining services are provided to a purchaser whose identity is unknown to the miner, such service is considered an activity that falls outside the scope of VAT. Hence – to the extent that the miner does not provide other services – the miner will not be considered a taxable person for VAT purposes. If, on the other hand, mining services are provided against a contractually agreed consideration to a purchaser whose identity is known by the miner, the services are subject to VAT to the extent that the miner is considered a taxable person for VAT purposes.

Taxable persons with a mixed activity (ie, carrying out VAT-taxable and VAT-exempt activities resulting in a limited right to deduct input VAT) can calculate the amount of VAT to be deducted using the general pro rata regime or the “real use” method. As of 2023, the application of the “real use” method requires a submission of a “prior notification” to the competent VAT administration, no later than at the end of the first tax return period of the current calendar year.

See 1.1 Evolution of the Blockchain Market regarding the “Blockchain4Belgium” initiative.

Additionally, the Belgian Association of Digital Technology Leaders (Beltug), a private organisation, established a Blockchain Task Force in September 2018.

Prior to undertaking any attempt to determine who owns what, the applicable law (ie, the laws of which jurisdiction apply) should be verified in accordance with the rules of private international law. In what follows, it is assumed that Belgian law applies.

The default rules of civil law and civil procedure law apply to questions of ownership of crypto-assets. No specific rules have been created for dealing with ownership transfers by means of a blockchain network.

Consensual Ownership Transfer

Under Belgian law, a consensual ownership transfer system applies for transactions involving the sale and purchase of movable things. The category of “movable things” also comprises intangible things (unless, of course, these intangible things are considered “immovable”). Crypto-assets are considered intangible movable things, and so the consensual ownership transfer system applies to the sale and purchase of crypto-assets. This means that the ownership of crypto-assets transfers from the seller to the purchaser as soon as the parties agree on the crypto-assets that are to form the object of the transaction and the price at which the ownership of the crypto-assets is to transfer, unless the parties expressly agree in a contract that the ownership will transfer at a later time (eg, as soon as the transaction has received six confirmations).

If the crypto-assets are fungible – eg, where the crypto-assets are bitcoins (without reference to specific unspent transaction outputs) – these conditions are only fulfilled as soon as the exact crypto-assets that are to form the object of the transaction can be identified. In other words, if a seller who owns 100 bitcoins agrees to sell ten bitcoins, the ownership of the actual bitcoins will only transfer as soon as the transaction is included in the blockchain (unless parties agree to postpone the ownership transfer). If, on the other hand, a seller who owns ten bitcoins agrees to sell “all ten bitcoins I currently own”, it is clear from the outset that the object of the transaction is the ten bitcoins credited to the public key(s) of which the seller knows the associated private key(s). Therefore, in the latter case, ownership of the ten bitcoins transfers as soon as the seller and the purchaser settle on a purchase price.

Evidence

It is one thing to have a consensual ownership transfer system, but it is another thing to be able to actually prove that you are the owner of certain crypto-assets in a court of law. Therefore, due regard should be had for the law of evidence. Different rules apply depending on whether a sale of crypto-assets is concluded between enterprises, between an enterprise and a non-professional individual or between non-professional individuals. An example of an important rule of evidence is that if one wants to prove that a sale of crypto-assets for a value of EUR3,500 or more took place, and the adversary is a non-professional individual, one can only do so by submitting a copy of a signed sale and purchase agreement. This rule does not apply if the adversary is an enterprise (eg, a professional investor).

Other rules also apply if the transaction is not a sale and purchase but is, for instance, a loan or a custody agreement. In any case, the (non)fungibility of the crypto-assets will be a major parameter in determining ownership.

If the crypto-assets at stake represent nominative shares in a Belgian company that has the legal form of a besloten vennootschap (BV), coöperatieve vennootschap (CV) or naamloze vennootschap (NV), a rebuttable presumption applies that the person registered in the share register is the owner of the shares.

Crypto-exchanges

Crypto-assets are very often held through intermediaries, such as exchanges. In that case, the exchange or a third-party service provider holds the private key associated with the public key to which the crypto-assets are credited. Two approaches can be taken in such case. Either:

• the party who holds the private key is considered the owner, and the investor has merely a personal right (ius ad rem) to delivery of the crypto-assets – this would mean that if the holder of the private key goes into administration, the investor will very likely lose all or almost all of their crypto-assets; or
• the other approach would be to consider the holder of the private key as the mere possessor of the crypto-assets and to consider the investor as the owner.

The latter solution would offer the investor considerably more protection against insolvency risk. If the holder of the private key goes into administration, the investor can then simply recover its crypto-assets by means of a rei vindicatio. To date, Belgian courts have not been able to rule on this issue.

The bottom line is that determining the ownership of crypto-assets is a multi-faceted endeavour that wholly depends on the features of the crypto-assets at hand. It is advisable to mitigate the considerable legal uncertainty that remains around this issue by drafting watertight contracts.

Under MiCAR, which is expected to enter into application somewhere towards the end of 2024 (ie, 18 months after its entry into force), the relevant categories of regulated crypto-assets are:

• “electronic money token” or “e-money token”, meaning a type of crypto-asset that purports to maintain a stable value by referencing to the value of an official currency of a country;
• “asset-referenced token”, meaning a type of crypto-asset that is not an electronic money token and that purports to maintain a stable value by referencing to any other value or right or a combination thereof, including one or several official currencies of a country;
• the residual category of crypto-assets (ie, digital representations of value or rights which may be transferred and stored electronically, using distributed ledger technology or similar technology) that are not e-money tokens or asset-referenced tokens; and
• “utility token” (which is a subcategory of the residual category), meaning a type of crypto-asset which is only intended to provide access to a good or a service supplied by the issuer of that token.

To each of these categories, a distinct rule set will apply.

In addition, and especially pending the application of MiCAR, the guidelines set out by the FSMA in its Crypto-assets Classification Communication are relevant. In this Communication, the FSMA clarifies the various steps that may help with the classification of crypto-assets and briefly addresses the consequences of that classification. A stepwise plan is provided in the annex to the Communication to help the reader with the classification. For more information, please see:

https://www.dlapiper.com/en-gb/insights/publications/2022/12/crypto-assets-regulation-in-belgium

Parties seeking to issue or market crypto-assets in Belgium are highly advised to first discuss the possible regulatory qualifications of the crypto-assets with the FSMA before taking any action.

Digital assets directly or indirectly pegged to another digital asset have a large likelihood of falling within the ambit of the Marketing Prohibition Regulation (discussed in 2.1 Regulatory Overview). If so, the professional marketing of these assets in Belgium to one or more retail clients is prohibited.

Clarification in this respect should be sought with the FSMA prior to entering the Belgian market.

Provided vendors agree, cryptocurrencies can be used for payment of transactions up to an equivalent of EUR3,000. Amounts exceeding EUR3,000 must be paid using scriptural money. The price of acquired real estate must always mandatorily and fully be paid in scriptural money.

There are no Belgian regulations that are specifically designed to apply to the creation, marketing or sale of non-fungible tokens (NFTs). NFTs are generally subject to the tax regime described in 2.8 Tax Regime.

To the authors’ knowledge, bit4you is the only cryptocurrency exchange operating out of Belgium. It is a centralised custodial exchange for non-security digital assets.

Venly (previously Arkane Network) runs an NFT marketplace. Venly has its registered office in Belgium.

Receiving and transferring fiat currencies and/or cryptocurrencies may qualify as a “payment service” in the sense of the Payment Institutions Act, which implements PSD II. This Act regulates the following payment services:

• services enabling cash to be placed on a payment account as well as all the operations required for operating a payment account;
• services enabling cash withdrawals from a payment account as well as all the operations required for operating a payment account;
• execution of payment transactions, including transfers of funds on a payment account with the user’s payment service provider or with another payment service provider (execution of direct debits, payment transactions through a payment instrument and credit transfers, including permanent payment orders);
• execution of payment transactions where the funds are covered by a credit line for a payment service user (execution of direct debits, payment transactions through a payment instrument and credit transfers, including permanent payment orders);
• issuing of payment instruments and acquiring of payment transactions;
• money remittance;
• payment initiation services; and
• account information services.

Businesses offering payment services must be licensed as such, given that offering payment services is a regulated activity in Belgium.

Some exemptions apply. These are the same exemptions as under PSD II. The exemptions that are regularly invoked in the fintech sphere are:

• the limited network exemption;
• the commercial agent exemption; and
• the technical service provider exemption.

Although crypto-assets are relatively new, the anti-money laundering (AML) risks associated with these assets are not. From a regulatory point of view, many of the risks associated with digital assets echo those presented by novel financial products and technologies in the past:

• untested business models;
• potential for abuse and fraud;
• lack of clear understanding on how crypto-asset transactions work; and
• the underlying uncertainty of a rapidly evolving regulatory environment.

On 19 July 2019, the NBB released its Circular NBB_2019_20 “on expectations regarding activities related to crypto-assets”. This Circular is addressed to the financial undertakings under the NBB’s supervision, including insurance and reinsurance undertakings. The NBB warns financial entities under its supervision of, among other things, money laundering and terrorist financing risks. It imposes the obligation on the financial institutions under its supervision to apply adequate due diligence and risk governance processes.

The fifth Anti-Money Laundering Directive (AMLD5) was implemented into Belgian law by the AML Act. Under AMLD5, several new entities are brought within the personal scope of the provisions on the prevention of money laundering and terrorist financing. These newly obliged entities include virtual currency exchanges (ie, providers engaged in exchange services between virtual currencies and fiat currencies), and custodian wallet providers (see 4.6 Wallet Providers for a definition).

Virtual currencies are defined in Article 4, 35°/1 of the AML Act as “a digital representation of value that is not issued or guaranteed by a central bank or a government, that is not necessarily linked to a legally determined currency and that does not have the legal status of currency or money, but that is accepted by natural or legal persons as a means of exchange and that can be electronically transferred, stored and traded.”

In any case, the acceptance of a client and/or the acceptance of sale proceeds of crypto-assets by an obliged entity must always be determined on a case-by-case basis while taking specific risk factors into consideration.

Due Diligence and Risk Governance Process

Risk-based approach

Firstly, the extent of the due diligence requirements must be assessed based on the given risk situation. AML legislation does not prohibit the acceptance of sale proceeds of crypto-assets in general. Obliged entities have to adapt their due diligence procedures depending on the underlying risk.

Risk assessment

Secondly, obliged entities must have a meticulous insight into their counterparties and must perform an accurate assessment of their clients’ inherent and residual risks.

Risk mitigation

Finally, obliged entities have to define their own risk appetite (eg, not accepting sales proceeds from crypto-assets that went through a tumbler/mixer service). In this regard, obliged entities must develop a consistent framework for determining their specific risk factors and risk management. Additionally, obliged entities must have sound transaction monitoring systems in place, allowing them to track and report suspicious activities. 

The relevant authority for the supervision of financial markets is the FSMA (see also 2.3 Regulatory Bodies). At this point, the most important piece of regulation specifically addressed to the crypto-assets sector is the Marketing Prohibition Regulation, discussed in 2.1 Regulatory Overview.

There are no specific regulatory limits on the ability of a crypto-asset exchange to re-hypothecate the crypto-assets they hold for customers, provided customers have agreed to this. Depending on the regulatory status of the exchange, prudential limits on this practice may apply.

Custodian wallet providers fall within the personal scope of the provisions on the prevention of money laundering and terrorist financing (see 4.3 KYC/AML/Sanctions) and must register with the FSMA (see 2.1 Regulatory Overview). Custodian wallet providers are defined in the AML Act as “entities that provide services to safeguard private cryptographic keys on behalf of their customers, to hold, store and transfer virtual currencies”. If the wallet provider also provides payment services, the Payment Institutions Act may apply (see 2.1 Regulatory Overview).

Please refer to the FSMA ICO Communication in 2.1 Regulatory Overview for an overview of the FSMA’s regulation of ICOs.

In its ICO Communication, the FSMA also stressed the importance of adequately categorising crypto-assets issued in an ICO. The FSMA notes that the application of securities laws to crypto-assets issued by means of an ICO depends on the way in which the ICO in question is structured, and that this must be assessed on a case-by-case basis.

Since then, the FSMA has issued its Crypto-assets Classification Communication (discussed in 2.1 Regulatory Overview) to help issuers with this assessment.

Parties seeking to issue or market crypto-assets in Belgium are highly advised to first discuss the possible regulatory qualifications of the crypto-assets with the FSMA before taking any action.

Prospectus Regime

See under The prospectus regime in 2.1 Regulatory Overview.

Consumer Protection

See under Consumer protection in 2.1 Regulatory Overview.

Please also refer to the discussion of the Virtual Currency Distribution Regulation in 2.1 Regulatory Overview.

Intermediaries

Various regulations may apply to crypto-asset exchanges if they decide to act as intermediary in an initial exchange offering, especially if the crypto-asset is a security token.

Only the entities mentioned in Article 21, Section 1 of the New Prospectus Act, which are all regulated entities, are allowed to act as intermediaries for purposes of the placement of investment instruments within the territory of Belgium. Consequently, if a token qualifies as an investment instrument and is placed in Belgium, only regulated entities can act as intermediaries (with certain limited exceptions). The category of “investment instruments” is a broad one. As soon as the crypto-asset that is being offered resembles a security token, it is likely that the asset will qualify as an investment instrument. The FSMA has issued its Crypto-assets Classification Communication (discussed in 2.1 Regulatory Overview) to help issuers with this assessment. It is highly advisable to enter into a discussion with the FSMA in this respect prior to engaging in any sort of issue or marketing of crypto-assets in Belgium.

Qualification of the Crypto-Asset

See under The Investment Services Act in 2.1 Regulatory Overview. The FSMA has issued its Crypto-assets Classification Communication to help market participants with this assessment. If the Investment Services Act applies, the exchange will need to have or obtain a licence from the FSMA or the NBB to provide “investment services or activities”, which include, among others, receiving and transferring buy and sell orders and placing financial instruments.

If the crypto-asset qualifies as an investment instrument, the Information Obligations Decree applies (as discussed under Consumer protection in 2.1 Regulatory Overview).

Furthermore, when the service offered in respect of a crypto-asset qualifies as a financial service, Book VI of the Belgian Code of Economic Law, containing various consumer protection provisions, applies. A financial service is defined in this Code as “each banking service or service relating to lending, insurance, individual pensions, investments and payments”.

Alternative Funding

The initial exchange offering may also qualify as an “alternative funding service” – see under Crowdfunding in 2.1 Regulatory Overview.

The Crowdfunding Act sets out the licensing and operating requirements and the conduct of business rules for alternative funding platforms.

Other token launch mechanisms, such as airdrops, are not systematically launched out of Belgium and are not targeted by specific Belgian laws or regulations, other than as mentioned elsewhere in this chapter (see 2.1 Regulatory Overview).

There are no special Belgian regulations that deviate from the general investment funds legislation and that apply to funds that invest in crypto-assets.

In 2021, Belgium introduced a legal framework for the use of new technologies (such as DLT) for the holding and settlement of dematerialised securities. The Act of 27 June 2021 “containing various financial provisions” made amendments to the Belgian legal framework to allow CSDs and account holders to keep their securities accounts in or through “secured mechanisms for electronic registration”, including DLT.

There are no other special Belgian regulations that deviate from the general investment services legislation and that apply to financial intermediaries that deal in crypto-assets.

Self-executing contracts, or “smart contracts”, are in principle permitted under Belgian law. No specific legal framework has been established for this phenomenon. Therefore, common contract law applies. In Belgium, contracts can generally be concluded without formal requirements, subject to certain statutory exceptions (eg, consumer credit contracts). The computer code making up a smart contract can thus in principle constitute a valid contract, provided the validity requirements under Belgian contract law are met.

Ordinary liability rules apply when determining the liability of developers of blockchain-based networks, but considerable legal uncertainty remains as to how these rules should be applied to a decentralised context. In common law jurisdictions, the concept of “fiduciary duty” might be used to hold developers responsible for losses that arise through the use of their software. However, considering Belgium is a civil law jurisdiction, the concept of “fiduciary duty” is not used under Belgian law to determine the liability of developers.

Decentralised financial platforms are not principally prohibited in Belgium. Self-evidently, any type of financial activity that is carried out in Belgium must comply with Belgian financial laws.

If the crypto-assets qualify as “financial instruments” in the sense of MiFID II, they can be pledged in accordance with the Belgian Financial Collateral Act, which implements the Financial Collateral Directive (No 2002/47/EC) into Belgian law. If the crypto-assets do not qualify as financial instruments, they can be pledged in accordance with the provisions of the Belgian Civil Code on security interests in movable assets.

The AML Act, as amended by the VASP Act, and the VASP Royal Decree (discussed in 2.1 Regulatory Overview) apply to custodial wallet providers (ie, entities offering services to secure cryptographic private keys on behalf of their clients to hold, store and transfer virtual currency).

In a report of October 2018, the EU Blockchain Observatory and Forum (the “Observatory”) stated that “there is no contradiction in principle between the goals of the GDPR and those of blockchain technology” due to the technologically neutral manner in which the GDPR was drafted.

However, the Observatory added that, depending on the organisation of the network, difficulties could arise in relation to, for example:

• data minimisation and the rights to erasure and rectification (in particular due to data immutability);
• accountability (difficulties in determining the role of each person or entity involved); and
• international data transfers (due to the global nature of blockchain networks).

This finding was also confirmed by a study of the European Parliamentary Research Service entitled “Blockchain and the General Data Protection Regulation: Can distributed ledgers be squared with European data protection law?”, written by Dr Michèle Finck and published in July 2019. The study concluded that:

• there are many considerable points of tension between the GDPR and blockchain technology;
• considerable legal uncertainty exists as to how the GDPR should be applied in a decentralised context; and
• it is impossible to state that blockchains are, as a whole, either completely compliant or incompliant with the GDPR and that ultimately each concrete use case needs to be carefully examined on a case-by-case basis.

While blockchain technology may seem difficult to reconcile with GDPR principles such as the right to erasure (Article 17, GDPR) and data protection by design and by default (Article 25, GDPR), some researchers, such as Claudio Lima, have proposed creative solutions. An example of such a proposed solution would be to store personal data off-chain and store the hashes to encrypt this personal data in the blockchain layer. If a data subject were to exercise their right to erasure under Article 17 of the GDPR, the service provider could erase the “linkability” of the blockchain hash to the personal data located in distributed off-chain servers.

See 8.1 Data Privacy.

Mining of cryptocurrencies is not prohibited as such in Belgium.

There are no special Belgian regulations that apply to the staking of crypto-assets.

DAOs are unpopular among service providers and investors in Belgium, due to the bad reputation they acquired in the aftermath of the DAO Hack and the unresolved legal questions they face.

The authors are not aware of DAOs operating out of Belgium or having a meaningful connection to Belgium.

The authors are not aware of DAOs operating out of Belgium or having a meaningful connection to Belgium.