Child Relocation 2026 Comparisons

The Brazilian equivalent of parental responsibility is the institution known as “poder familiar”, best translated as parental authority. It comprises the rights and duties conferred on legal parents to protect, raise, represent and support their children and administer their property while they are in the age of minority. Its principal rules are found in the Civil Code, while the Federal Constitution of 1988 establishes the broader principles of comprehensive protection and absolute priority.

The Child and Adolescent Statute gives practical effect to those constitutional guarantees. Rather than treating parental authority as control over the child, Brazilian law regards it as a legal function exercised for the child’s protection, dignity and development.

A defining feature of “poder familiar” is that it belongs equally and simultaneously to both parents, regardless of whether they are married, separated, divorced or have never lived together. It governs the principal decisions in a child’s life, including legal representation, healthcare, education, international travel, permanent relocation and the administration of property. Brazilian law distinguishes between representation, applicable to children under 16, and assistance, applicable to those between 16 and 18, reflecting the child’s developing autonomy and legal capacity. Where the parents cannot agree on a significant matter, either may ask the Family Court to resolve the dispute according to the child’s best interests.

“Poder familiar” must be distinguished from “guarda”, or custody, as the two operate at different legal levels. Parental authority is the broader legal status from which the parents’ fundamental rights and duties arise, whereas custody concerns residence, daily care and the practical organisation of the child’s routine. Shared custody is the ordinary statutory arrangement, subject to exceptions where a parent does not wish to exercise it or is unable to do so, or where there is evidence of domestic or family violence. A parent without custody does not, for that reason alone, lose parental authority and ordinarily retains the right and duty to supervise the child’s upbringing, obtain information from schools and healthcare providers, and participate in major decisions. This distinction is particularly important in relocation cases: responsibility for daily care does not, by itself, authorise one parent to move the child permanently abroad without the other parent’s consent or judicial authorisation.

“Poder familiar” is temporary by nature and ends when the child reaches the age of 18 or is legally emancipated. It may also cease through death, adoption or judicial decision. Outside these circumstances, the courts may impose suspension as a temporary restriction where parental duties are seriously breached or the child’s property is improperly managed. Loss of parental authority is the more severe measure and is reserved for grave statutory grounds, including abandonment, repeated abuse of parental duties, physical or psychological violence, and specified serious crimes against the child or the other parent. Either measure requires formal judicial proceedings and must remain centred on the protection of the child.

A birth mother acquires parental authority once her legal motherhood is established, ordinarily through the child’s civil registration. She is not required to be married, obtain a custody order or complete any separate judicial or administrative procedure. Article 1,634 of the Civil Code confirms that both legal parents exercise parental authority irrespective of their marital situation.

In most cases, the Declaration of Live Birth provides the information used to identify the mother in the civil register. Different evidential or registration requirements may apply in cases involving assisted reproduction or disputed motherhood.

No additional welfare, financial or eligibility assessment is imposed merely because she is the birth mother.

Parental authority may subsequently be suspended or removed only by judicial decision, on statutory grounds and through proceedings that observe due process. Article 23 of the Child and Adolescent Statute expressly provides that lack of financial resources is not, by itself, sufficient for loss or suspension. Separation from the other parent, or the fact that the mother is not the child’s principal daily carer, likewise does not remove her parental authority.

A father acquires parental authority once his legal fatherhood has been established. Where the mother is married, Article 1,597 of the Civil Code applies presumptions of paternity in defined circumstances, including certain forms of assisted reproduction. These presumptions ordinarily allow the father to be identified in the child’s civil registration without separate recognition proceedings.

Where the parents are not married, paternity may be acknowledged in the birth record or subsequently by a declaration before the civil registrar, a public or private instrument, a will or a statement made before a court, as provided by Article 1,609 of the Civil Code and Law 8,560/1992. If paternity is disputed or the alleged father refuses recognition, judicial proceedings may be brought to establish it. DNA evidence is commonly used, and an unjustified refusal to undergo testing may create a presumption of paternity when considered together with the remaining evidence.

Once legal fatherhood is established, an unmarried father has the same parental status as a married father. He is not required to obtain a custody order or apply separately for parental authority. A court may regulate custody, residence and contact, but those arrangements do not, by themselves, remove his parental authority.

The relevant distinction is therefore between a biological father whose paternity has not yet been legally established and a legally recognised father. A biological connection may provide the basis for a paternity claim, but it does not ordinarily produce the official status or documentation upon which schools, healthcare providers, public authorities and courts can rely. Once paternity is registered or judicially declared, the father acquires the corresponding parental rights and duties.

A person without a genetic connection to a child does not acquire parental authority merely by providing care or by marrying or living with one of the child’s parents. Legal parenthood must first be established through a recognised route, principally adoption, assisted reproduction, or judicial or voluntary recognition of socio-affective parenthood.

In assisted-reproduction cases, parentage is based on the documented parental project and consent rather than genetics alone. The National Justice Council’s National Code of Rules governs registration, including cases involving donated genetic material, same-sex parents and gestational surrogacy. Once registered as a parent, the non-genetic parent holds the same parental authority as a genetic parent, while the donor of genetic material acquires no parental status.

Socio-affective parenthood requires a stable, public and demonstrably parental relationship. Affection, cohabitation or financial support alone is insufficient. Voluntary recognition before a civil registrar is available only where the person to be recognised is over 12 and remains subject to requirements concerning age difference, consent, evidence and review by the Public Prosecutor’s Office. Cases involving younger children, disputed consent, complex evidence or more than one additional socio-affective parent require judicial proceedings. Supreme Federal Court Theme 622 confirms that biological and socio-affective parenthood may coexist.

A step-parent or long-term carer may seek step-parent adoption or recognition of socio-affective parenthood where the legal requirements are satisfied. Custody or guardianship may confer substantial authority to care for, represent and make decisions for a child, but neither makes the carer a legal parent. The person’s powers depend on the applicable legislation and the terms of the judicial order; full parental authority arises only when legal parenthood has been formally established.

Marriage affects the establishment and registration of fatherhood, but not the nature or extent of the child’s rights. Article 1,597 of the Civil Code creates presumptions of paternity in defined circumstances connected with marriage, including certain forms of assisted reproduction. These presumptions generally allow the husband to be registered as the father without separate recognition or judicial proceedings.

Where the parents are not married, the father must ordinarily acknowledge paternity voluntarily or have it established by judicial decision. Once legal parenthood exists, however, marital status makes no difference to parental authority. Article 227(6) of the Federal Constitution and Article 1,596 of the Civil Code prohibit discrimination between children born inside or outside marriage and adopted children. Married and unmarried legal parents therefore hold the same parental rights and duties.

Marriage is not conclusive where the presumption of paternity is successfully contested, another person’s parentage is established or specific assisted-reproduction rules apply. Equally, the subsequent separation or divorce of the parents does not end parental authority. It changes the legal relationship between the adults, not their continuing rights and responsibilities towards the child.

For parental responsibility, Brazilian law does not differ in substance according to the parents’ sex or sexual orientation. The same rules governing legal parenthood and parental authority apply to all families. Same-sex couples may adopt, establish parenthood through assisted reproduction or obtain recognition of socio-affective parenthood under the same legal standards applicable to different-sex couples.

This equal treatment reflects Brazil’s clear legal recognition of same-sex families. In 2011, the Supreme Federal Court, in ADI 4,277 and ADPF 132, recognised same-sex unions as family entities with the same status and legal consequences as different-sex unions. Since 2013, National Justice Council Resolution 175 has prohibited civil registrars from refusing to perform same-sex marriages or convert same-sex stable unions into marriage.

Marriage or partnership alone does not, however, make a person the legal parent of their spouse’s or partner’s child. Legal parenthood must still be established through birth registration, adoption, socio-affective recognition or a judicial decision. Once established, both parents hold complete and equal parental authority, with no secondary or restricted status arising from the same-sex nature of their relationship.

Adoption is the legal process through which an adopter becomes a parent and acquires parental authority. No separate application for parental responsibility is required. Once the judgment becomes final and the new parentage is registered, the adoptive parents assume the same rights and duties as birth parents, including responsibility for the child’s care, education, representation, support, residence and property.

The procedure is judicial and governed principally by Articles 39 to 52-D of the Child and Adolescent Statute. An adopter must be at least 18 and at least 16 years older than the child. Couples adopting jointly must be married or in a stable union and demonstrate a stable family environment. The same requirements apply to different-sex and same-sex couples.

The court must find that adoption serves the child’s best interests and provides genuine benefits. The applicants undergo professional assessment, and a supervised placement period is generally required. The birth parents’ consent is normally necessary unless they are unknown or have lost parental authority. The child must be heard according to age and maturity, and a child aged 12 or over must personally consent.

The final judgment creates a complete parent-child relationship and transfers parental authority to the adopters. Previous legal ties with the birth family ordinarily end, except for marriage impediments; in a step-parent adoption, the relationship with the remaining legal parent is preserved. International adoptions must also comply with the Child and Adolescent Statute and the 1993 Hague Adoption Convention, including Central Authority, accreditation and subsidiarity requirements.

A permanent international relocation normally requires the consent of both legal parents. Article 1,634 of the Civil Code places decisions concerning international travel and permanent changes of residence within the joint exercise of parental authority. Moving the child to another country therefore cannot ordinarily be decided by one parent alone.

Sole custody does not, by itself, give the resident parent an unrestricted right to relocate. The other parent usually retains parental authority and the right to participate in major decisions affecting the child. Consent is unnecessary only where the other parent no longer holds parental authority or where a court expressly authorises the relocation. If consent is refused, the parent proposing the move must seek judicial permission before changing the child’s country of residence.

Consent should be specific and recorded in writing. Authorisation for a holiday, passport or temporary journey does not normally amount to consent to permanent relocation. A suitable agreement should identify the destination and address schooling, healthcare, contact, travel arrangements, costs and documents. The child’s views may be considered according to age and maturity, but they do not replace the consent or judicial authorisation required by law. Moving without that authority may constitute wrongful removal under the 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, as explained in 3. Child Abduction.

Where consent cannot be obtained, the parent proposing the move must apply to the competent State Family Court before relocating. The court may authorise the change of residence and supply the missing consent for international travel or passport formalities. The same proceedings may determine or adjust custody, the child’s principal home, contact, maintenance and responsibility for travel costs.

The applicant should present a complete and workable plan covering immigration status, housing, employment, schooling, healthcare, family support and continued contact with the other parent. The court hears the other parent, and the Public Prosecutor participates because the child’s interests are involved. Mediation and social or psychological assessment may be ordered where useful. Interim relief is available in urgent cases, although permission for an effectively irreversible international move is approached with particular care.

The court may approve or refuse the relocation, postpone it until specified conditions are met or authorise it with a detailed cross-border parenting plan. Safeguards may address contact dates, advance purchase of tickets, travel costs, remote communication, foreign school and address information, recognition of Brazilian orders and arrangements for the child’s return for contact. Moving before consent or judgment may lead to urgent protective orders, changes to custody and, where the treaty requirements are met, return proceedings under the 1980 Hague Convention.

A move within the same neighbourhood or to a nearby location will not ordinarily require judicial authorisation where it does not materially affect the child’s school, care arrangements, contact with the other parent or an existing court order.

Parental authority must nevertheless continue to be exercised jointly. Article 1,634(V) of the Civil Code places consent to a permanent change of residence to another municipality within the responsibilities of both parents, so even a relatively short move may require agreement where it crosses a municipal boundary or alters the child’s established routine.

A more distant move within the same state receives closer scrutiny when it makes midweek care, alternate weekends or other regular contact impracticable. Although immigration, international enforcement and overseas travel are not involved, the court applies substantially the same best-interests assessment used in international relocation cases. It considers the reasons for the move, distance, schooling, family support, travel time and cost, together with the practical arrangements required to preserve the child’s relationship with both parents.

A move to another Brazilian state does not engage a separate system of family law. The Federal Constitution, Civil Code, Child and Adolescent Statute and federal procedural legislation apply throughout Brazil. The relevant differences are practical, including distance, local court administration, state court fees and the possible transfer or co-ordination of proceedings.

A unilateral distant move intended to obstruct contact may also fall within Article 2(VII) of the Parental Alienation Act. Relocation is not parental alienation merely because the other parent opposes it. The provision concerns an unjustified change to a distant location that interferes with the child’s family relationships. The greater the effect on care and contact, the more closely the court’s assessment will follow the full relocation analysis described in 2.3 Application to a State Authority for Permission to Relocate a Child.

Taking a child out of Brazil without the required consent or judicial authorisation is unlawful where it breaches the other parent’s parental authority, custody rights or a court order. Article 1,634(IV) of the Civil Code, Articles 83 to 85 of the Child and Adolescent Statute and National Justice Council Resolution 131/2011 govern international travel authorisation. Compliance with border formalities does not, however, prove consent to permanent relocation: a passport or travel authorisation may permit departure without permitting a new country of residence.

For the 1980 Hague Convention, the decisive issue is not the departure document alone. Under Article 3, a removal or retention is wrongful where it breaches rights of custody under the law of the child’s habitual residence and those rights were actually being exercised or would have been exercised but for the removal or retention. Those rights include the power to determine the child’s place of residence. A lawful holiday may therefore become a wrongful retention once the child is kept abroad beyond the agreed date.

In this setting, international child abduction is mainly a civil and family-law idea. It is not automatically a separate Brazilian crime. Criminal exposure depends on the facts and may involve breach of an order, false documents, concealment or Article 249 of the Criminal Code, whose use against a parent is limited by its own terms. A criminal complaint does not replace the civil return process and can sometimes make a voluntary return harder.

The left-behind parent should act promptly, preserve the available evidence and contact the Federal Administrative Central Authority, known as ACAF. The request should identify the child and accompanying adult, the child’s habitual residence, the custody rights being exercised, the agreed terms of travel, the date of the removal or retention and the child’s probable location. Birth and custody records, evidence of daily care, travel documents, messages, photographs and all available location information should be collected without delay.

Where the 1980 Hague Convention was in force between Brazil and the destination State at the relevant time, ACAF may transmit an application under Article 8 to the foreign Central Authority. The requested State may assist in locating the child, pursuing voluntary return or mediation, arranging protective measures and commencing judicial return proceedings under its domestic procedural law. Article 29 also permits the left-behind parent to apply directly to the competent authority in that State, usually with specialist local representation. The return court does not determine final custody; it decides whether the child must be returned to the State of habitual residence, subject only to the Convention’s limited exceptions.

The Convention ceases to apply when the child reaches 16. Timing is particularly important under Article 12. Where proceedings commence within one year of the wrongful removal or retention, return must ordinarily be ordered unless an exception is established. Proceedings may still be brought after that period, but the respondent may additionally argue that the child has become settled in the new environment.

For certain countries in the Americas, the 1989 Inter-American Convention on the International Return of Children may provide another treaty route. Where no return treaty is in force, proceedings will usually be required in the country where the child is located. A Brazilian custody or travel order may require local recognition or enforcement, while diplomatic or consular assistance cannot compel a foreign court to return the child.

Where removal is threatened but has not yet occurred, a Brazilian Family Court may prohibit travel, retain passports, notify border authorities and make specific custody or residence orders. Once the child has left Brazil, those measures may preserve evidence and prevent further movement, but the effective return remedy will ordinarily need to be pursued in the country where the child is then located.

Brazil is a Contracting State to the 1980 Hague Convention, which has been in force in the country since 1 January 2000 and was incorporated into domestic law by Decree 3,413/2000. The Federal Administrative Central Authority, known as ACAF, operates within the Ministry of Justice and Public Security. It examines incoming requests, seeks voluntary return and, where no agreement is reached, may refer the matter to the Office of the Attorney General of the Union for proceedings before the Federal Court.

The applicant parent may participate as an interested party and assist the Union, but the Attorney General does not act as that parent’s private lawyer. Specialist private counsel is not mandatory, although it may be important for direct participation, production of evidence, co-ordination with foreign lawyers and related proceedings before a State Family Court.

Articles 7(g) and 25 of the Convention support access to legal assistance. No private legal fee is charged for proceedings brought by the Union through the Attorney General, and access is generally straightforward once ACAF receives and accepts a complete application. This institutional representation does not, however, create an individual lawyer-client relationship. A parent requiring separate representation may seek legal aid under Brazilian procedural law or apply to the Federal Public Defender’s Office, subject to financial eligibility, conflicts of interest and institutional capacity.

Federal jurisdiction derives from Article 109(I) and (III) of the Federal Constitution, while National Justice Council Resolution 449/2022 regulates the procedure. The judge considers interim protection at the outset, orders service, identifies the necessary evidence and may schedule mediation within 30 days. The defence is due within 15 days and must remain confined to the Convention requirements and exceptions. If mediation is unsuccessful, the court must organise the proceedings promptly and should hold the evidential hearing within 30 days, subject only to a limited extension.

The Union must establish wrongful removal or retention under Article 3 of the Convention. The respondent may contest the existence or exercise of custody rights, establish consent or acquiescence under Article 13(a), invoke grave risk under Article 13(1)(b), rely on the objection of a child of sufficient age and maturity, raise settlement where permitted by Article 12, or invoke the exceptional human-rights ground in Article 20. Resolution 449 excludes evidence that the child has become settled where less than one year elapsed before ACAF received the request or before a qualifying direct application was filed.

Interim measures may include retention of passports, border alerts, restrictions on further travel, and protective arrangements for the child or accompanying parent. Under Article 16 of the Convention, a State Family Court may not decide the merits of custody while the return issue remains pending. The Federal Court determines whether the child must return to the State of habitual residence; it does not determine final custody.

Brazilian law recognises prompt return as the Convention’s central rule and treats the exceptions as limited. In ADIs 4,245 and 7,686, decided on 27 August 2025, the Supreme Federal Court confirmed the Convention’s full compatibility with the Federal Constitution and recognised its supralegal status. It also identified excessive delay as a structural problem and directed institutional and procedural measures intended to secure a final decision within one year.

The judgment neither altered the return rule nor created an additional defence. It confirmed that Article 13(1)(b) must be applied according to the child’s best interests and with a gender perspective. Objective and concrete indications of domestic violence against the mother may establish grave risk even where the child was not directly assaulted, but allegation alone is insufficient. The examination remains confined to the Convention exception, the available evidence and the protective measures capable of securing a safe return; it must not become a general custody or welfare trial.

Proceedings brought through ACAF and the Attorney General involve no private legal fee for the applicant. Additional costs may arise from private representation, sworn or certified translations, apostilles, travel, expert evidence and related proceedings. Court fees, legal aid and allocation of expenses remain governed by the Code of Civil Procedure and the applicable provisions of Resolution 449.

Article 11 does not establish a six-week deadline for judgment. It requires expeditious proceedings and permits an explanation for delay to be requested after six weeks. Brazilian cases have historically taken longer where extensive evidence, expert assessment or appeals are involved. Resolution 449 introduced a concentrated first-instance timetable and accelerated appellate consideration, while the Supreme Federal Court’s 2025 directions seek a final outcome within one year. Particularly complex cases may nevertheless exceed that period.

Where the requested return concerns a country with which no applicable return treaty is in force, the Convention’s summary-return mechanism does not apply. The claimant may seek relief before a Brazilian State Family Court under the Civil Code, the Child and Adolescent Statute and the child’s best interests, or request recognition of an effective foreign custody judgment by the Superior Court of Justice, with appropriate provisional enforcement. Custody and welfare may then be examined more broadly, without an automatic-return presumption or the Convention’s limited defences. If Brazil and the other State are linked by the 1989 Inter-American Convention on the International Return of Children, that treaty must be considered before the matter is treated as entirely non-conventional.

Brazil is a Contracting Party to the 1980 Hague Convention, in force for Brazil since 1 January 2000.

Where a specific case links Brazil with a country for which the Convention is not in force, the non-treaty routes described in 3.2 Steps Taken to Return Abducted Children and 3.3 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction apply. These may include the Inter-American Convention, an application under Brazilian child and family law, recognition of a foreign judgment by the Superior Court of Justice, and proceedings in the country where the child is. The child’s best interests are then assessed without the Convention’s summary-return presumption and its limited defences.