There is no clear distinction between blue-collar and white-collar workers under PRC employment laws. Workers uniformly hold the status of “employees” as protected by PRC employment laws, as long as they are employed by enterprises, individual economic organisations, private non-enterprise entities, state organs, public institutions or social organisations within the boundary of the PRC, no matter whether they are employed as senior staff or frontline workers.

Under the current PRC employment laws, employees can generally be divided into directly employed employees and labour dispatched employees.

• Directly employed employees can be further divided into full-time employees and part-time employees, with full-time employment being the most common form of employment. Part-time employees do not work more than four hours on average per day and 24 hours per week for one employer; they can work for more than one employer simultaneously.
• Labour-dispatched employees are employed by a dispatch agency and then seconded to work for a company, under an indirect employment arrangement. Labour dispatch applies to temporary, auxiliary or substitutable positions, and the law stipulates that the ratio of the number of dispatched employees versus the number of total employees (direct hires plus dispatched employees) of the company shall not exceed 10%, unless otherwise provided by law.

According to the PRC Employment Contract Law (the “Employment Contract Law”), there are three types of employment contract terms:

• a fixed-term contract;
• an open-ended contract; and
• a project-based contract expiring at the completion of a specific task or project.

A written employment contract shall be entered into within one month from the date on which the employee commences work; otherwise, the employer shall pay twice the monthly salary to the employee from the second month of the commencement of employment until the date when a written employment contract is concluded. If an employer still fails to conclude a written employment contract after a year from the commencement of the employment, an open-ended employment contract will be deemed automatically concluded between the employer and the employee.

The following information must be included in an employment contract:

• the employer's name, address and legal representative/person in charge;
• the employee's name and home address, and the number of their valid identification card;
• the term of the employment contract;
• the job description and the work location;
• the working hours, rest time and leaves;
• remuneration;
• social insurance;
• labour protection, working conditions and protection against occupational hazards; and
• specific provisions on the protection of the rights and interests of female employees.

Part-time employees may enter into oral agreements with the employer. The employer is not allowed to stipulate a probation period with the part-time employee.

For full-time employees, there are three types of working hour systems, under which different rules for working hours apply.

• Standard working hours system: employees work no more than eight hours per day and no more than 40 hours per week (“Statutory Standard”) and are entitled to at least one rest day every week. Otherwise, overtime will occur.
• Comprehensive working hours system: this is generally applicable to certain special industries requiring long shifts (eg, transportation, airlines, fishery industry, offshore oil exploration), and the employer must obtain approval from the competent authorities, unless otherwise provided by local regulations and rules. Working hours are calculated within a certain calculation cycle (month/quarter/year). The average daily working hours and the average weekly working hours must not exceed the Statutory Standard. Otherwise, overtime will occur.
• Flexible working hours system: this is only applicable to certain job positions (eg, executives, sales personnel, taxi drivers). Similarly, the employer must obtain approval from the competent authorities, unless otherwise provided by local regulations and rules. The employee can perform their duties on a flexible schedule, provided that they complete the work assignment properly and in a timely manner.

Part-time employees are employees who generally work with an employer for no more than four hours per day on average and no more than 24 hours per week in total. There are no special rules/restrictions applicable to working hours for part-time employees.

Overtime

Overtime refers to the working time that the employer arranges or approves the employees to work over the Statutory Standard. According to the PRC Labour Law (the “Labour Law”), overtime shall not exceed three hours per day or 36 hours per month.

Under the standard working hours system, the employer shall compensate the employee’s overtime work in the following ways.

• For overtime work during working days, the employer should pay not less than 150% of the employee’s normal hourly wage. In general, alternative rest days should not be used to substitute overtime pay for working days.
• For overtime work during rest days, the employer can first consider making arrangements for employees to take alternative rest days. If those alternative rest days cannot be arranged, the employer should pay not less than 200% of the employee’s normal daily or hourly wage.
• For overtime work during a statutory holiday, the employer should pay not less than 300% of the employee’s normal daily or hourly wage. In general, alternative rest days should not be used to substitute overtime pay for statutory holidays.

Under the comprehensive working hours system, the employer should pay not less than 150% of the employee’s normal hourly wage for the extra hours worked during the calculating cycle (regardless of whether the extra hours are for work days or rest days), and not less than 300% of the employee’s normal daily or hourly wage for the extra hours worked on statutory holidays.

Under the flexible working hour system, employees shall not generally be entitled to overtime pay, but the rules are slightly different among provinces and cities. For example, in Beijing, employees under the flexible working hour system are not entitled to any overtime pay at all. However, in some other cities, employees who work extra hours on statutory holidays will still be entitled to overtime pay of not less than 300% of their normal daily or hourly wage.

If an employer does not make the overtime payment for its employee’s overtime work, the competent labour authorities have the right to order the employer to make such a payment within a limited period; if the employer fails to comply with that order, it will be required to pay 150–200% of the outstanding overtime pay.

There is no nationwide minimum wage. The local government of each region sets its local minimum wage, which is normally updated at least every two years and applies to all employees, regardless of their age, position and experience. The minimum wage generally includes a monthly minimum wage and an hourly minimum wage. The monthly minimum wage applies to all full-time employees, while the hourly minimum wage applies to all part-time employees.

It is not statutorily required for employers to provide bonuses on top of basic salaries; however, it is common to see employers reward employees through various bonuses – eg, the 13th month’s salary, year-end bonus, commission, performance bonus. Generally, the issuance of bonuses is solely at the employer’s discretion. If the employment contract or the employer’s internal policies stipulate the provision of a certain bonus to the employee, the employer shall be bound by those stipulations.

Apart from the minimum wage requirements, there are no mandatory requirements on salary increase (the local government of each region generally issues a salary increase guideline every year, but it is only a reference document to guide enterprises to determine salary increases reasonably and is not mandatory). Salary deduction can only be made upon the employee’s consent, unless it is done on certain statutory grounds (eg, a sick-leave period).

Holidays

According to the newly updated Regulation on Public Holidays for National Annual Festivals and Memorial Days (effective on 1 January 2025), holidays in China include 13 days of statutory holiday for all employees (New Year’s Day, Spring Festival, Labour Day, Mid-Autumn Festival, National Day, etc), as well as holidays for certain groups of people (eg, a half-day’s leave for female employees on Women’s Day, and a half-day’s leave for 14 to 28-year-old employees on Youth Day).

Leaves

All employees shall be entitled to fully paid statutory annual leave, sick leave and other leaves (maternity leave, childcare leave, etc) in accordance with the PRC laws and the employer’s internal policies. The main categories of leave include the following.

Statutory annual leave

Any employee whose accumulated service years (including all the prior service years with current and former employers) is more than one year shall be entitled to paid statutory annual leave. The number of days of statutory annual leave shall be calculated based on the accumulated service years of the employee as follows:

• one to ten years ‒ five days;
• ten to 20 years ‒ ten days; and
• more than 20 years ‒ 15 days.

If the employer fails to arrange the statutory annual leave for an employee due to its operational needs, that statutory annual leave does not need to be arranged by the employer (with the consent of the employee), but the employer shall pay the employee 300% of the wage (the 100% normal wage and an additional 200%) on a daily basis for the unused statutory annual leave.

Sick leave

An employee who suffers from illness or a non-work-related injury has the right to take sick leave to recover from the illness or injury. The minimum salary standard during sick leave required by laws and regulations may be different among provinces and cities, and the commonly used standard is 80% of the local minimum wage. There are also provinces and cities with different sick leave pay standards – eg, Shanghai has its own sick leave and sick pay regulations.

Maternity leave

Female employees who give birth in compliance with PRC birth-control policies are entitled to 98 days of maternity leave, 15 days of which may be taken before delivery. The leave can be extended by an additional 15 days under special circumstances such as dystocia and multiple births. Extra maternity leave is granted by local regulations where the specific length varies from city to city. For example, in Beijing and Shanghai, the total length of maternity leave is 158 days, including a base 98-day period under national law and 60 days granted by local regulations.

According to national law, female employees who suffer a miscarriage during the first four months of pregnancy shall be entitled to 15 days of maternity leave, and those who suffer a miscarriage after four months of pregnancy shall be entitled to 42 days of maternity leave.

Marriage leave

An employee is entitled to three days of marriage leave, according to the national law. Moreover, all legally married couples will be entitled to additional marriage leave granted by local regulations.

Paternity leave

Paternity leave for male employees is granted by local regulations only. For instance, paternity leave for male employees in Beijing and Shanghai is 15 days and ten days respectively.

Childcare leave

Childcare leave is granted by local regulations only. For instance, both Beijing and Shanghai have introduced childcare leave that entitles eligible parents to five days of fully paid leave each year until the child reaches three years of age.

Elderly care leave

Elderly care leave is also stipulated in local regulations only. For instance, in Beijing, an employee who is the only child in their family is entitled to no more than ten working days of fully paid elderly care leave per calendar year to take care of their parent(s) (including legal adoptive parents) who need nursing care due to illness, injury or disability. In Shanghai, an employee who bears statutory obligations to support an elderly person is entitled to take up to five working days (up to seven working days if the employee is the only child and was born within the prescribed period) of fully paid leave per year to accompany the elderly person during hospitalisation.

Bereavement leave

According to the current law, when a parent, spouse or child of an employee of a state-owned enterprise dies, the employee is entitled to take one to three days of bereavement leave. Employers generally refer to this standard in providing bereavement leave to employees.

Confidentiality and Non-Defamation

An employer may formulate internal policies – or agree with employees in the employment contract or a separate confidentiality agreement – on relevant matters of confidentiality, including protection of the employer’s trade secrets and other confidential information. The scope of confidential information shall be defined in the agreement at the discretion of the employer.

At present, there are no nationwide regulations requiring the payment of compensation for adhering to a confidentiality obligation. Therefore, in practice, employers need not pay their employees in exchange for their compliance with the confidentiality requirements. If an employee violates the confidentiality requirements and causes economic losses to the employer, the employer can claim compensation against the employee based on the internal policy, relevant stipulations in the employment contract or the confidentiality agreement.

Similarly, employers can set requirements on non-defamation for employees by formulating policies, or by stipulating relevant requirements in the employment contract or a separate agreement and can claim compensation for any employee violation and losses caused.

A non-compete clause is a commonly seen post-termination restrictive covenant for employees designed to protect the confidential information of the employer. Under PRC employment laws, an employer can agree with an employee on non-compete obligations through stipulations in the employment contract or through a separate non-compete agreement. Key non-compete stipulations include the following.

• Restricted competitive behaviours: working for a competing company that produces the same type of products, engaging in the same type of business as their former employer, establishing their own business to produce the same type of products, engaging in the same type of business, or competing with their former employer in any other way.
• Scope of employees: employees subject to non-compete clauses shall be senior management, senior technicians or other employees under confidentiality obligations.
• Scope of regions: the geographical region for non-compete clauses shall be stipulated by the employer and the employee and is generally limited to the fair and reasonable area that can form an actual competitive relationship with the employer (factors to consider include business coverage and industry characteristics).
• Non-compete period: the effective period for non-compete clauses shall be stipulated by the employer and the employee and shall not exceed two years post-termination.
• Non-compete compensation: in order to enforce the non-compete clause, the employer must pay compensation to the employee on a monthly basis throughout the non-compete period. The parties can agree on the compensation amount. According to the national rules, where there is no such agreement on the specific amount, the default amount is 30% of the employee’s average monthly salary over the previous 12 months before the termination or expiry of the employment contract for each month. Local rules may have specific requirements on the compensation standard.
• Liabilities for breach: under PRC employment laws, if an employee breaches the non-compete obligations, the employer can claim for the liabilities for breach of contract as agreed by the parties, including liquidated damages and/or recovery of the non-compete compensation paid by the employer. Meanwhile, the employer can require the employee to continue performing the non-compete obligations for the rest of the non-compete period (if any).

PRC employment laws are silent on the topic of non-solicitation; however, non-solicitation clauses are commonly used by employers in practice to prevent former employees from soliciting clients and employees of the employer.

As violating non-solicitation is not a scenario stipulated by the law where the employer can claim for liquidated damages as agreed with the employees, employers can generally only claim for recovery of financial losses suffered due to an employee’s breach of a valid non-solicitation obligation. If the employer claims for a breach of non-solicitation by employees, the employer needs to prove the solicitation behaviours and the financial losses incurred.

Data Privacy Laws

The PRC Civil Code (effective on 1 January 2021) contains a chapter regarding the right to privacy and personal information (PI) protection. The PRC Cybersecurity Law (effective on 1 June 2017, newly revised on 28 October 2025), the PRC Data Security Law (effective on 1 September 2021) and the PRC Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL, effective on 1 November 2021) collectively constitute the three fundamental and framework laws regulating data security protection in the PRC. Of these laws and regulations, the PIPL provides the most details regarding PI protection, establishing comprehensive and systematic rules on the processing and protection of PI. Employers should also comply with the PIPL when processing employees’ PI; the following sections briefly summarise the key points under the PIPL.

PI Processing Principles

• Lawful, transparent, accurate and secured: PI shall be processed in accordance with the principles of legality, legitimacy, necessity, good faith, openness and transparency. In addition, the quality and security of PI shall be guaranteed during the processing.
• Specified purpose: PI shall be processed for a specified and reasonable purpose. The processing shall be directly relevant to the processing purpose and shall be performed in a manner that has the minimum impact on personal rights and interests.
• Minimised collection: the collection of PI shall be limited to the minimum scope necessary for achieving the processing purpose and shall not be excessive.
• Limited retention period: the retention period of PI shall be the shortest time necessary for achieving the processing purpose, except as otherwise provided by any law or administrative regulation.

Legal Grounds for Processing Employees’ PI

According to the PIPL, PI can only be processed based on statutory grounds, with the two grounds most related to the employment sphere being that:

• the individual’s consent has been obtained; and
• the processing is necessary for the conclusion or performance of a contract to which the individual is a contracting party, or for conducting human resource management under the employment rules and regulations legally established and collective contracts legally concluded.

However, the PIPL does not stipulate specific standards for determining what constitutes “necessary for conducting human resource management”, and thus it is suggested that the employers try to obtain consent from the employees for PI needed in the first place.

Consent and Separate Consent

As the key legal ground for processing PI, the PIPL sets out requirements on obtaining “consent”. The consent shall be voluntarily and explicitly given by the individual on a fully informed basis. The PI processor shall truthfully, accurately and completely inform individuals of the following required matters (“Items to Inform”):

• the name and contact information of the PI processor;
• the purposes and methods of processing the PI, the categories of PI to be processed, and the retention periods;
• the methods and procedures for individuals to exercise the rights provided by the PIPL; and
• other matters that should be notified as provided by laws and administrative regulations.

The PIPL also requires “separate consent” for certain circumstances (eg, sharing PI with third parties, processing sensitive PI, outbound transferring of PI), which is a form of consent with higher requirements. The specific requirements and form of separate consent are not specified by the PIPL. Based on the current understanding and practice, to constitute a separate consent, the specific item involving PI processing should be listed as a separate item requesting the individual’s specific consent explicitly for this item, instead of being hidden in a package of items pending the individual’s joint consent.

Sharing Employees’ PI With Third Parties

The most relevant employment-related scenarios include engaging third parties in background checks, recruitment, payroll services and labour dispatch, etc. When sharing employees’ PI with third-party processors, apart from the Items to Inform, the employer shall also inform the employees of the recipient's name and contact information, the purposes and methods of processing, and the categories of PI, and obtain the employee’s separate consent.

Outbound Transfer of Employees’ PI and Standard Contract

The outbound transfer of employees’ PI is not unusual, especially for multinational employers sharing employees’ PI within a global management system. Given the special nature of outbound transfer, the PIPL sets out detailed requirements in this regard. Apart from informing employees of the Items to Inform and additional items, and obtaining separate consent, the PI processor also needs to conduct a PI protection impact assessment and adopt one of the three following legal mechanisms:

• a security assessment organised by the National Cyberspace Department;
• a certification by a specialised agency for protection of personal information in accordance with the provisions of the National Cyberspace Department; or
• a standard contract (SCC) formulated by the National Cyberspace Department with the overseas recipient (the “SCC Approach”).

Of these transfer mechanisms, detailed rules have been laid out regarding the SCC Approach, and the SCC template has been published. Employers who are eligible to adopt the SCC Approach shall follow the relevant rules for complying with the PI outbound transfer requirements.

The Provisions on Promoting and Regulating the Cross-border Transfer of Data promulgated on 22 March 2024 exempt the PI processor from adopting one of the above three legal mechanisms for PI outbound transfer on certain grounds, including employers’ cross-border transfer of employees’ PI where it is necessary for conducting human resource management according to the rules and regulations and collective contracts established/concluded in accordance with the law.

Retaining Employees’ PI

According to the PIPL, the retention period of PI shall be the shortest time necessary for achieving the processing purpose, although the specific length of the retention period is not specified. It is suggested that employers decide the retention period according to the type of PI and the specific stage in the employment life cycle.

Legal Liabilities

PI processors that violate the PIPL in their PI processing will be subject to the following legal liabilities.

Civil liabilities

Individuals can file lawsuits against PI processors according to the PRC Civil Code, claiming an infringement regarding their PI. As provided by the PIPL, the burden of proof for such cases lies with the PI processor to prove that it is not at fault. Otherwise, the PI processor shall be liable for damages and other civil liabilities. Where PI processors violate the requirements under the PIPL during PI processing and infringe the rights and interests of multiple individuals, the People’s Procuratorate, consumer organisations prescribed by the laws, and organisations determined by the state cyberspace authorities may file lawsuits.

Administrative liabilities

Competent PI protection authorities can also issue orders for rectification and warnings and can confiscate unlawful income from PI processors for violations of the PIPL. In the case of failure to rectify, legal liabilities include fines, rectification and the confiscation of unlawful income.

Criminal liabilities

The PIPL refers to the PRC Criminal Law for relevant behaviours constituting crimes. According to the PRC Criminal Law, fines and/or up to seven years of imprisonment can be imposed for illegally acquiring PI or illegally selling or providing PI to third parties.

Foreigners working in the PRC should abide by laws and regulations such as the Law on the Management of the Entry and Exit of the PRC, and the Regulations on Management of Foreigners Working in China. According to these regulations, for foreigners to work legally in China, the following requirements shall be met:

• they have reached the age of 18 and are in good health;
• they have the professional skills and work experience required for the job;
• they do not have a criminal record;
• they have a definite employer; and
• they have a valid passport or other international travel document.

In addition, for foreign workers to work legally in China, the prior approval of competent labour administrative authorities, a work permit and a residence permit shall be obtained. Failure to obtain the valid permits will lead to penalties for both the employer and the employee, and detention may be imposed on the foreign employee. These rules do not apply to foreign employees of foreign embassies, consulates, offices of the United Nations and other international organisations in China, which enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities.

As a side point, the term of an employment contract between an employer and a foreign worker may not exceed five years. The employer may apply for renewal within 30 days prior to the expiry date, and the employment contract can be renewed upon the labour administrative authorities’ approval and completion of the work permit extension procedures.

General Registration Requirements

All foreign workers shall obtain valid work permits to work in China, except in very special circumstances – eg, if the duration of their stay in China is less than 90 days and the worker enters China for certain reasons, including:

• to conduct a trial for sports training in China;
• to purchase machinery or equipment for supporting maintenance, installation, commissioning, disassembly, guidance or training; or
• to be dispatched to domestic branches, subsidiaries or representative offices to complete short-term work.

In other circumstances, the registration can generally be divided into two kinds, depending on the duration of the stay (ie, whether it is over 90 days or not). Generally, there are two kinds of arrangement commonly adopted in practice for employers to have foreign nationals work in China:

• the foreign national is directly employed by a PRC entity, which acts as the employer of that foreign national (“direct hiring”); or
• the foreign national is employed by a foreign entity and then seconded to work in a PRC entity (“international secondment”).

To implement the international secondment mode, the foreign worker must be in a managerial or technical position in China, and the foreign entity shall issue a secondment letter, stipulating contents including but not limited to workplace, term, salary and position. The PRC entity shall apply for the work permit with the secondment letter.

Type of Foreign Workers

There are different types of foreign workers permitted to apply for work permits, including high-end talent (Category A), foreign professionals (Category B) and other foreign personnel (Category C). There are specific criteria indicating which category shall apply to each foreign employee when applying for work permits.

Procedures for Obtaining Work Permits and Residence Permits for Foreign Employees

For a PRC employer to hire a foreign employee who comes from abroad, the general procedures for obtaining a work permit and a residence permit are as follows:

• the employer is to register in the “Service System for Foreigners Working in China” and upload the relevant documents required;
• the employee may apply for a Z visa after the work permit notice has been issued, and enter China with the work permit notice;
• within 15 days of entry with the work permit notice, the employer should apply for a work permit; and
• the foreign employee shall then apply for a residence permit after receiving the work permit.

Mobile work (remote work) is not a new concept and was widely used during the COVID-19 pandemic period. Post-pandemic, some employers are still keeping the remote work option open to their employees or adopting a hybrid work mode (on-site and remote).

Work location is a mandatory term in an employment contract, and it will normally be an on-site location. Switching from on-site work to remote work will generally require the mutual consent of both the employer and the employee. In practice, there remain some uncertainties or difficulties related to remote work, as follows.

Employee Management

In the remote work mode, employers may lack adequate channels to monitor employees՚ working status, so it is suggested that supporting policies are incorporated during the remote work arrangement, including a request for the employee to check in online through attendance software during their normal working hours and retain all remote work software and instant messaging tools online and responsive during working hours.

Work-Related Injury

For employees who are injured during remote work, there is some uncertainty about how to prove that an injury occurred during work hours, in the workplace and for work-related reasons. According to judicial practice, if it can be proved that the injury occurred during the working hours required by the employer, and that the employee was working at that time (eg, there is an online record of the work, there is a description of the work in the work log, and there is even an email sent as proof of the work done at the time), it is likely that work-related injury will be recognised and the employer will need to bear the relevant statutory obligations.

IP Protection

In the remote work arrangement, the vast majority of information is transmitted through the internet, and it is more difficult to monitor employees՚ behaviours and ensure that they do not disclose confidential information from the employer. Therefore, it is suggested that the employer strengthen the confidentiality requirements during remote work periods and co-operate with IT software suppliers to establish a comprehensive mechanism for the protection of the employer’s IP during remote work.

Although some universities in China have been trying to implement this kind of leave for teachers, the “sabbatical” is not a legal concept stipulated by PRC employment laws, but rather a kind of optional leave granted by universities to teachers. Consequently, there is a lack of regulations on the terms of employment (salary standard, etc) during the sabbatical period at the national level, and there are no related cases demonstrating the attitude of the arbitration commission/court.

New Forms of Employment Under Platform Economy

With the development of the platform economy and the need for more flexible employment, new forms of employment have developed and infiltrated a growing number of industries in the past year; typical new manifestations include delivery persons, online platform taxi drivers and network anchors. The identification of the relationship between the platform enterprises and the individuals engaged, and the protection of such individuals’ rights and interests, are of most concern.

The national and local governments have been issuing regulations and policies governing new forms of employment in recent years. The Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, together with seven other departments, issued a guiding opinion in 2021, which for the first time introduced a new concept called a “less-than-complete employment relationship” (as opposed to an ordinary employment relationship or a civil law relationship). It also set out comprehensive provisions to ensure platform workers’ rights and interests, including reasonable pay, occupational injury protection participation and vocational training.

In 2024, the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security further issued three guidelines regulating platform employment, including:

• a guideline on working hours, rest and remuneration for platform workers;
• a guideline on the publication of labour rules for platform enterprises; and
• a guideline on services to safeguard the rights and interests of platform workers.

In 2025, the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, together with eight other departments, issued a notice further expanding the pilot programme for occupational injury protection for individuals under new forms of employment. It will be important to pay attention to any new rules introduced in the future concerning these new forms of employment.

Overage Workers

China's aging population has driven another significant new manifestation of work: post-retirement employment. Under PRC employment law, individuals who reached the statutory retirement age could no longer form standard employment relationships, leaving their rights inadequately protected. To fill this legislative gap, the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security and four other departments jointly issued the Interim Provisions on the Protection of Basic Rights and Interests of Overage Workers (“Provisions”), which took effect on 1 July 2026. The Provisions introduce key safeguards for this growing demographic, including but not limited to:

• Requiring employers to enter into written agreements with overage workers, specifying essential terms such as working hours, remuneration, and occupational hazard protection;
• Requiring employers to safeguard overage workers' basic rights concerning remuneration, rest and leave, occupational safety and health, and make work-related injury insurance contributions for overage workers (while allowing flexibility regarding other categories of social insurance).

Some regions have already issued a template agreement for overage workers, while the specific requirements on work-related injury insurance contributions, among other matters, remain pending. Overall, the Provisions represent a meaningful enhancement of protections for overage workers. It is advisable to continue monitoring the upcoming detailed rules and practice on this topic.

According to the Labour Law, trade unions shall represent and safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of employees and carry out their activities independently in accordance with the law. The Trade Union Law of the PRC (the “Trade Union Law”) (last revised in 2021) further clarifies the status of a trade union, which is a voluntary organisation formed by employees of their own free will.

Trade unions have the general right to represent and protect the rights of employees. According to the Trade Union Law, specific rights of trade unions include but are not limited to:

• monitoring employers’ violation of relevant policies, demanding that employers rectify any violations, and ensuring that the employees exercise their right to democratic management in accordance with the law;
• assisting and guiding the employees in signing employment contracts, attending negotiation and signing collective contracts with the employers on behalf of the employees, and filing arbitration or cases on behalf of the employees; and
• providing advice regarding the employers’ disposition of employees and reviewing the reason for unilateral termination of employees.

Under PRC employment laws, employees can exercise their right to democratic management through the employee representatives’ congress, which has the right to inspect the daily operation of the employer and is responsible for representing the employees’ legal interests.

The employee representatives shall be elected by employees; the specific proportion and number shall be determined in accordance with the implementation measures of the employee representatives’ congress of the enterprise or determined by the enterprise through consultation with the trade union but shall be no fewer than 30 people.

In most cases, employment terms and conditions are agreed and executed individually, but collective bargaining also takes place at both the enterprise level and the industry level. According to PRC employment laws, collective employment contracts shall be concluded between the employer and the trade union that represents employees (for an employer that has not established a trade union, the next higher-level trade union shall guide the representatives elected by the employees to conclude a collective contract with the employer) in

• matters relating to remuneration, working hours, rest and vacation/holidays, occupational safety and health, insurance and welfare; or
• specialised collective contracts on matters relating to occupational safety and health, female employees’ rights protection, salary adjustment mechanism, etc, while requiring that the draft be submitted to the employee representatives’ congress or all employees for discussion.

Currently, most collective contracts are negotiated at the enterprise level, and collective contracts are more common in enterprises in the manufacturing and retail industries.

The collective contract shall be submitted to the labour administrative department after being concluded and shall become effective after the lapse of 15 days from the date of receipt by the labour administrative department, unless any objections to the contract are raised.

The PRC employment laws set strict limitations on employment relationship terminations, and there is no concept of “termination at will” for full-time employees. The statutory grounds can be divided as follows.

Non-Fault Termination

Termination upon mutual agreement

An employment contract may be terminated upon mutual agreement between the employer and the employee, and the employer is obliged to pay the employee the statutory severance.

Unilateral termination by the employer

An employer is entitled to terminate the employment contract unilaterally with 30 days’ prior written notice or one month’s salary in lieu, and with statutory severance pay, in the following circumstances:

• where an employee suffers from an illness or a non-work-related injury and is unable to undertake the original job or other job arranged for them by the employer following completion of the stipulated medical treatment period;
• where the employee is proved incompetent in their job and remains incompetent after receiving training or a position amendment by the employer; or
• where the objective circumstances on which the conclusion of the employment contract was based have undergone major changes and, as a result, the employment contract can no longer be performed, and upon negotiation between the employer and the employee, both parties are unable to reach an agreement on the change of the employment contract.

Unilateral termination by an employee (resignation)

An employee has the right to terminate the employment contract unilaterally by giving their employer three days՚ prior written notice during the probation period. After completion of the probation period, an employee may terminate their employment contract upon providing 30 days’ prior written notice to the employer.

Fault Termination

Unilateral termination by the employer

An employer is entitled to terminate the employment contract unilaterally of an employee without prior notice or any severance pay under any of the following circumstances:

• where the employee is proven to have failed to satisfy the recruitment requirements during the probation period;
• where the employee has seriously violated the internal policies of the employer;
• where the employee has committed serious dereliction of duty or engaged in malpractice for personal gain, causing material damage to the employer;
• where the employee has established an employment relationship with another employer concurrently, which materially affects the completion of their tasks with the current employer, or the employee refuses to rectify the matter as demanded by the employer;
• where the employee is prosecuted for criminal liability according to the law; or
• where an employment contract is rendered wholly or partially void when the employee causes the employer to conclude or amend the employment contract against the employer’s true intention by means of fraud, coercion or taking advantage of the employer's disadvantaged position.

Unilateral termination by the employee

If any of the following circumstances occurs, an employee may terminate the employment contract immediately and is entitled to statutory severance paid by the employer:

• where an employer fails to provide labour protection or working conditions pursuant to the provisions in the employment contract;
• where an employer fails to pay the remuneration in full and/or on a timely basis;
• where an employer fails to make social insurance contributions for the employee in accordance with the PRC laws;
• where an employer’s internal rules and policies violate the law and cause damages to the employee’s rights and interests;
• where an employment contract is rendered wholly or partially void when the employer causes the employee to conclude or amend the employment contract against the employee’s true intention by means of fraud, coercion or taking advantage of the employee's disadvantaged position; or
• where an employer uses means such as violence, threats or unlawful restriction of personal freedom to coerce an employee to work, or where an employer gives orders that violate safety rules or force an employee to engage in dangerous operations that endanger the employee’s safety.

End of Employment

An employment contract will be ended when any of the following occurs:

• the term of the employment contract expires;
• the employer is declared bankrupt;
• the employer has its business licence revoked, is ordered to close down or decides on early dissolution;
• the employee starts to take their pension entitlement or reaches legal retirement age;
• the employee is dead or declared dead or missing by the People’s Court of the PRC; or
• any other situation stipulated by applicable PRC laws.

Under the first three circumstances, the employer shall pay the employee statutory severance.

Economic Lay-offs

If an employer is reducing its workforce by 20 persons or more, or by 10% or more of the total number of its employees, the termination ground of economic lay-off can be invoked under any of the following circumstances:

• restructuring pursuant to the PRC Enterprise Bankruptcy Law;
• serious difficulties in production and/or business operations;
• the employer switches production, introduces a major technological innovation or revises its business method and, after the amendment of employment contracts, still needs to reduce its workforce; or
• other major changes occur to the objective economic circumstances relied upon at the time of execution of the employment contracts, rendering them unable to be performed.

Before the lay-offs, the employer has to follow the procedural requirements as stipulated in the Employment Contract Law, as follows:

• explain the circumstances to its trade union or all of its employees 30 days in advance;
• consider the opinions of the trade union or the employees; and subsequently
• report the lay-off plan to the competent labour authorities.

Whether prior notice is necessary depends on the specific statutory ground for the termination. In the circumstances outlined in 7.1 Grounds for Termination (under Non-Fault Termination: Unilateral termination by the employer), an employee must be given 30 days’ prior written notice, or one month’s salary in lieu of notice. An employee shall also give prior notice to the employer upon resignation.

In the case of economic lay-offs, an employer shall explain the situation to the trade union or all of its employees 30 days in advance (which can be regarded as a form of prior notice) and seek their opinions before reporting the proposed lay-offs to local administrative authorities.

Although not required by the Employment Contract Law, some local regulations in cities such as Beijing also require the employer to give prior notice to employees when the term of an employment contract expires and the employer decides not to renew it.

Severance

See 7.1 Grounds for Termination and the list of termination grounds on which the employee is entitled to severance pay.

Generally, statutory severance is calculated as one month's salary for every year of service of the employee. Since the Employment Contract Law took effect on 1 January 2008, statutory severance pay must be calculated in two parts.

• For the service period before 1 January 2008: statutory severance pay will be calculated in accordance with the applicable laws and regulations before 1 January 2008 (these can vary from the calculations that apply after 1 January 2008).
• For the service period after 1 January 2008: statutory severance pay will be one month's salary for every year of service (any period of six months or more but less than a year will be counted as one year), and half a month's salary for a service period of less than six months. The one month's salary is calculated based on the employee's average monthly salary during the 12 months prior to termination. However, when the average monthly salary of an employee exceeds three times the social average monthly remuneration issued by local government at the locality of the employer, the employee's average monthly salary shall be capped at three times the social average monthly remuneration, and the length of service years shall be capped at 12 years.

Procedural Requirements for Termination

The requirements to be observed include:

• notifying the trade union of the ground for termination (for grounds of unilateral termination by the employer, and noting that different places may have varying requirements regarding how many days in advance the trade union of the employer should be notified, as well as whether it is necessary to notify a higher-level trade union where the company has not established its own trade union);
• delivering the termination notice to the employee and making the statutory severance payment if needed (for grounds of unilateral termination by the employer);
• registering the termination with the labour authorities if so required by local regulations, and assisting with the social insurance and housing fund transfer for the employee; and
• issuing an employment termination certificate to the employee.

Under PRC employment laws, dismissal for serious cause is generally understood under Article 39 of the Employment Contract Law; see 7.1 Grounds for Termination (under Fault Termination: Unilateral termination by the employer). Among the circumstances listed, the one most commonly used in practice is “where the employee has seriously violated internal policies of the employer”. For an employer to terminate an employee successfully for serious violation of the employer’s internal policies, the following conditions must be met:

• the burden of proof is on the employer to prove the relevant disciplinary violation behaviour;
• the company's internal rules and regulations clearly stipulate that the behaviour is a serious violation of discipline, and the company consequently has the right to terminate the employment contract unilaterally; and
• the above-mentioned internal rules and regulations fulfil the democratic and publicising procedures.

The employer also needs to fulfil the procedural requirements summarised in 7.2 Notice Periods.

Normally, a written termination agreement will be reached between both parties upon mutual termination of the employment contract. There are no statutory requirements on the format or must-have terms regarding the termination agreement. According to judicial interpretations, the release clause shall be generally enforceable as long as it does not violate the mandatory provisions of laws and administrative regulations nor fall under fraud, duress or exploitation of an unfavourable position.

An employer cannot unilaterally terminate the employment of employees in the following circumstances (unless termination is based on Article 39 of the Employment Contract Law):

• the employee is engaged in operations that expose them to occupational disease hazards and has not undergone a pre-departure occupational health check-up, or is suspected of having contracted an occupational disease and is being diagnosed or is under medical observation;
• the employee has been confirmed as having lost (or partially lost) their working capacity as a result of contracting an occupational disease or sustaining a work-related injury with their current employer;
• the employee has contracted an illness or sustained a non-work-related injury, and the statutory medical period has not expired;
• the employee is a female employee on pregnancy, maternity or breastfeeding leave; or
• the employee has been working for the employer continuously for at least 15 years and has fewer than five years remaining before the statutory retirement age.

In addition, if an employee falls into any of the previously mentioned circumstances, the employment contract shall not be ended upon the expiry of their employment contract. Instead, the employment contract must be extended until the relevant circumstance ceases to exist (unless the employee has lost (or partially lost) their working capacity listed in the aforementioned second situation, in which case the end of their employment contract shall be in accordance with relevant regulations related to work-injury insurance).

PRC employment laws also set some special dismissal protections for certain trade union members and individuals elected for collective bargaining on behalf of employees (“Employee Bargaining Representative”).

• Employment contracts for full-time presidents/vice presidents/committee members of the company trade union shall be automatically extended for a period equal to their term of office, and employment contracts for part-time presidents/vice presidents/committee members of the company trade union shall be automatically extended until the expiry of their term of office. However, this protection does not apply in cases of personal serious misconduct during their term of office or upon reaching the statutory retirement age. In addition, the law sets special procedural requirements for dismissing the president or vice president of the company trade union during their term of office, including:
1. obtaining consent from both the company trade union committee and the next higher-level trade union organisation; and
2. lawfully removing the president or vice president from office in accordance with statutory procedures (eg, through a trade union members’ congress or congress of members’ representatives).
• The employment contract of an Employee Bargaining Representative that expires during the term in which the Employee Bargaining Representative was conducting collective bargaining shall be automatically extended until the completion of their duties of collective bargaining, unless the Employee Bargaining Representative has seriously violated the labour discipline or the internal policies of the employer, committed serious dereliction of duty, or been prosecuted for criminal liability according to the law.

Employees who consider that they have been wrongfully dismissed may bring a wrongful dismissal claim to the judicial authorities. The grounds generally include:

• substantive violations of the law, whereby the basis (factual basis or the statutory grounds invoked) for unilateral termination cannot be substantiated; or
• procedural violations of the law, including not notifying the trade union and not fulfilling relevant formalities requirements.

If their claim is supported, the remedy will be either reinstatement of employment with back pay or a double severance payment.

Discrimination is prohibited by PRC employment law. The Labour Law generally provides that people should not be treated unfairly due to race, gender, religion, etc, and that women should have equal rights of employment to men. In addition, the PRC Employment Promotion Law provides that employees are entitled to equal employment, and that individuals seeking employment shall not be discriminated against because of ethnicity, race, gender, religious belief, disability or whether the individuals are from rural places. The PRC Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, which was amended and took effect on 1 January 2023, further ensures equal employment rights for and prohibits discrimination against female employees. There are also specific regulations prohibiting discrimination against individuals who are hepatitis B carriers.

“Equal employment rights disputes” has been listed as a separate cause of action since 2019. Generally, individuals can file “equal employment rights disputes” lawsuits before the court, requiring the company to bear the corresponding legal responsibilities. The burden of proof is usually on the individual to prove that the enterprise conducted discriminatory actions. Remedies available to employees vary depending on the specific cause of action, with monetary compensation for economic loss and emotional loss in certain circumstances being the main remedy; other possible remedies include requiring the enterprise to apologise to the individual publicly.

In China, labour arbitration procedures are currently generally conducted on site.

However, online litigation is now widely used for court proceedings, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the Rules of Online Litigation of People’s Courts, the court may rely on the electronic litigation platforms to complete all or part of the litigation procedures of case docketing, mediation, exchange of evidence, questioning, court trial and service online.

The court shall decide whether to conduct an online court trial via video based on the opinions of the parties, the circumstances of the case, social impact, technical conditions and other factors. However, there are also circumstances where online court trials shall not apply, including where:

• all parties expressly disagree, or any of the parties disagrees with a good reason;
• none of the parties has the technical conditions and capability to participate in an online court trial;
• it is necessary to ascertain identities, verify originals or check physical objects on site through the court trial;
• the case is difficult and complicated and there is a wide variety of evidence, such that the application of an online court trial is not conducive to finding out the facts and applying laws;
• the case involves national security or state secrets;
• the case has a great social impact and has attracted wide public attention; or
• the court considers that there is any other circumstance that is not suitable for an online court trial.

Besides this, arbitration committees and people’s courts in some regions are also trying to provide an asynchronous hearing approach, which refers to hearings where the parties may choose to log on to the online arbitration/court platform at their own discretion within the time period specified by the arbitral committee/court to complete the hearing procedures (defence, investigation, adduction of evidence, cross-examination, etc). Under this approach, the parties may log on to the platform at different times to complete the relevant hearing procedures.

In China, most employment-related disputes are resolved under a two-stage framework – ie, labour arbitration followed by litigation. According to the PRC Employment Dispute Mediation and Arbitration Law, before filing an employment dispute with a court, it is mandatory to submit the dispute to the competent local labour arbitration commission, an institution specialising in hearing employment dispute cases. Any party that is unsatisfied with the arbitration award is entitled to bring the lawsuit to the competent people’s courts (the first instance court and then the second instance court), except in certain situations where the arbitration award is final.

According to the PRC Employment Dispute Mediation and Arbitration Law, where a labour dispute involves more than ten employees and the employees have the same claim, they may recommend their representatives to participate in the mediation, arbitration or litigation.

In addition to arbitration and litigation, an employer and employee are encouraged to consult with each other and to reach a mediation agreement on employment dispute settlement under PRC employment laws. Even if the employment disputes have been submitted to arbitration or litigation, an employer and employee could still negotiate and reach a mediation agreement, as long as the final arbitral award or court decision has not been made. The conciliation is not mandatory and must be based on both parties’ voluntary decision. The parties may choose to submit their employment disputes directly to arbitration without any pre-claim conciliation.

Labour supervision is also an available option. According to the Regulation on Labour Security Supervision, any organisation or individual shall have the right to report any act violating labour laws, regulations or rules to the labour supervisory authority (an administrative department responsible for the supervision of labour security administration). The labour supervisory authority will accept the reports and complaints, and will investigate, correct and impose punishment for any relevant acts.

Under PRC law, the arbitration commission/court will not generally award the prevailing party attorney’s fees or other costs. However, there may be special rules – eg, according to a local rule in Shenzhen, where the employee is the prevailing party in a labour dispute arbitration or litigation case, the attorney’s fee paid by the employee may be borne by the employer. The maximum amount shall not exceed CNY5,000; the portion exceeding CNY5,000 shall be borne by the employee.