Grounds For Divorce
There is only one ground for divorce that may be relied on by a married couple in Singapore – that of the irretrievable breakdown of the marriage. In addition to this ground, the court would also need to be satisfied that it would be just and reasonable to grant the divorce, having regard to all relevant circumstances.
As a threshold requirement, an individual is generally permitted to file for divorce after three years have passed since the registration of the marriage. In special circumstances, such as exceptional hardship suffered by a plaintiff or exceptional depravity on the part of the defendant, the court may allow an application for divorce to be made within the first three years of marriage. The requirement enshrines the sanctity of marriage in Singapore, and the representation of marriage as a serious obligation to be undertaken by both parties.
There are presently five “facts” that parties may rely on to establish an irretrievable breakdown of their marriage:
It is important to mention that proof of adultery would require Y to establish that sexual intercourse has taken place between X and a third party. In this respect, intimate messages or improper conduct between X and a third party may be insufficient, unless the circumstances of the case are such that adultery might reasonably be assumed as a result of an opportunity presented for its occurrence. Nonetheless, the improper association of a husband/wife with a third party may be relied on as a circumstance giving rise to the allegation that one has behaved in such a way that the other cannot reasonably be expected to live with them.
The party commencing the divorce should also take note of the six-month “grace period” afforded by the Women’s Charter 1961. Should the parties continue to live together as husband and wife for a period exceeding six months following the incidents (of adultery or unreasonable behaviour) relied on, other incidents may need to be provided and relied on.
The Women’s Charter (Amendment) Bill No 43/2021 provides for the inclusion of a sixth “fact” that may be relied on by the parties – divorce by mutual agreement, ie, the parties must state in writing that their marriage has irretrievably broken down, the efforts that they have made to reconcile, and the consideration that they have given to arrangements made in relation to financial affairs and any child of the marriage. The court will not accept the agreement if it is of the view that there remains a possibility that the parties may reconcile.
As Singapore presently does not recognise same-sex marriages or civil unions, the above ground would only apply to registered marriages between a man and a woman.
Processes and Timelines for Divorce
Parties filing for divorce would need to commence an action in the Family Justice Courts of the Republic of Singapore, on the basis of an irretrievable breakdown of their marriage (as detailed above) in order to obtain a divorce. There are no mandatory periods of separation between the parties required, prior to the commencement of the action, unless a party is intending to rely on one of the three facts which stipulate periods in which parties were deserted and/or living apart.
Pursuant to Section 94A of the Women’s Charter 1961, all parents with children under the age of 21 are required to attend the Mandatory Co-Parenting Programme (CPP) before filing for divorce, if they are unable to reach an agreement with their spouse on the grounds for divorce and/or all ancillary matters.
Divorce proceedings formally begin when a plaintiff files their writ for divorce. The writ would enclose the following documents:
After service of the writ (when served within jurisdiction), the defendant must file the following documents:
If necessary, the plaintiff may file a reply and defence to counterclaim 14 days after service of the defence and counterclaim.
Service of Divorce Proceedings
The documents listed above must be served personally or via registered post on the other party. Alternatively, service may be properly effected on a party via their solicitors, who have indicated that they have instructions to accept service on the party’s behalf.
If service is effected via registered post, the documents would be deemed duly served if sent by pre-paid registered post to the party, with the party signing and returning an acknowledgment of service.
Service of the writ outside jurisdiction is permissible if one of the requirements listed in Section 311 of the Family Justice Rules 2014 is met. The party seeking to serve documents outside jurisdiction must apply to the court for leave via ex parte summons supported by an affidavit stating:
The writ need not be served personally on a party as long as it is served in accordance with the law of the country in which service is effected.
Religious Marriages and Divorces
The Women’s Charter 1961 does not apply to marriages solemnised or registered under Muslim law. Instead, the Administration of Muslim Law Act 1966 governs Muslim marriages, with the Syariah Court deciding matters concerning divorces in Muslim marriages. Customary marriages entered into before 2 June 1967 were recognised as valid marriages. Post 2 June 1967, marriages solemnised in Singapore are only recognised as valid marriages if they are in accordance with the Women’s Charter 1961.
Judicial Separation/Annulment
An individual may file a writ for judicial separation based on any of the five ‘“facts” as set out in “Grounds for Divorce” above. Parties may file for judicial separation prior to the three-year time bar. Thereafter, they may then commence divorce proceedings on the basis of an irretrievable breakdown of their marriage (as detailed above) in order to obtain a divorce.
Following a judgment of judicial separation, the parties are no longer obliged to cohabit with each other. Parties who are judicially separated (but remain married) and who pass away intestate are not entitled to claim for part of the deceased spouse’s estate.
Parties may also choose to annul their marriage if it fulfils the requirements for annulment under Sections 105 or 106 of the Women’s Charter 1961. There are two types of annullable marriages, “void” or “voidable marriages”. The following marriages are void under Section 105 of the Women’s Charter 1961:
The following marriages are voidable under Section 105 of the Women’s Charter 1961:
The legal processes for commencing a legal action to annul a marriage is largely similar to that of divorces.
Singapore as the Jurisdiction for the Divorce
A Singapore court would have jurisdiction to hear an application for divorce where either or both of the parties are:
A Singapore citizen is deemed, until the contrary is proved, to be domiciled in Singapore.
A person’s domicile of origin (ie, their place of birth) would prevail when determining domicile unless that person acquires a new domicile of choice or dependence subsequently. The party who alleges that a domicile has been changed would bear the burden of proving the claim. A person cannot have more than one domicile at any one time (Peter Rogers May v Pinder Lillian Gek Lian [2006] SGHC 39).
The concept of habitual residence is distinct from that of domicile. An individual would be habitually resident in a place that they are ordinarily or normally resident in, apart from temporary or occasional absences of long or short durations. The residence should also be one that is voluntarily adopted, with a degree of settled purpose (Lee Mei-Chih v Chang Kuo Yuan [2012] SGHC 180).
As Singapore does not recognise same-sex marriages or civil unions, queries as to the jurisdictional grounds for the aforementioned categories would be a non-starter in Singapore.
Contesting Jurisdiction
The plaintiff making an application for divorce would need to state, in their statement of claim, the basis on which the court has jurisdiction to hear the matter – ie, whether reliance is placed on the parties’ domicile or habitual residence.
If a defendant wishes to contest the jurisdiction of the Singapore courts to hear the matter, they should apply for the Singapore proceedings to be stayed pending a determination on the appropriate forum for divorce proceedings. In such applications based on the ground of forum non conveniens, the Court of Appeal has affirmed the principles laid out in the seminal case of Spiliada Maritime Corporation v Cansulex Ltd [1987] AC 460 (“Spiliada”).
In brief, these principles are as follows.
In situations where the court’s jurisdiction may be a point of contention, parties should be wary of filing further pleadings and/or applications, as this may be seen as a submission to the jurisdiction of the Singapore courts (VH v VI and another [2008] 1 SLR 742).
Jurisdiction in Financial Claims
As the court’s power to order the division of matrimonial assets upon divorce flows from the initial grant of a judgment of divorce, the court’s jurisdiction to hear the parties’ financial claims would flow from a grant of interim judgment. Contesting the court’s jurisdiction, at this late stage, would likely be seen as extremely belated, and may not be entertained. Financial claims are often dealt with at the ancillary matters stage, ie, after the interim judgment of divorce has been granted.
While a party is at liberty, at any stage, to make an application for a stay of proceedings, an application made on the basis of pursuing financial proceedings in an alternate jurisdiction is likely to require exceptional circumstances before it would be granted. Further, if the application is deemed frivolous or vexatious, it may also be dismissed with an adverse costs order against the party making the application. Generally, if there is any contest on the appropriate forum for the proceedings, it ought to be made expeditiously and as early as possible.
Financial Claims in Foreign Divorces
Parties who have obtained a divorce in a foreign jurisdiction may apply to the court for leave to apply for financial relief consequential to said foreign matrimonial proceedings, in accordance with Sections 121A–121G of the Women’s Charter 1961.
As a pre-condition to the grant of financial relief, either one of the below two conditions must be satisfied.
Should this jurisdictional threshold be met, the party will need to apply for leave from the court for the application. Singapore should also be the appropriate forum for the relief to be granted.
When assessing whether there are “substantial grounds” for the application, the court will also review the merits and prospects of success of the application, in order to carry out the function of Section 121D of the Women’s Charter 1961 as a “filter” against unmeritorious or oppressive actions (Harjit Kaur d/o Kulwant Singh v Saroop Singh a/l Amar Singh [2015] 4 SLR 1216).
Even after substantial grounds are shown, courts will also consider the power of the foreign court to grant financial relief, the orders already made and any other relevant circumstances, such as why no orders were previously made. Further, in respecting international comity, Singapore courts are also slow to review and rewrite what a foreign court may already have decided.
Service
For matrimonial proceedings, service generally has to be personal service on the other party, for originating process documents. There are other methods of service provided for under the Singapore Family Justice Rules, including service by registered post or in a manner agreed to between the parties; see 1.1 Grounds, Timeline, Service and Process.
Ancillary Matters Process
The affidavit of assets and means (AOM) is a sworn statement to be filed and served by each party, after the interim judgment of divorce has been granted.
The AOM shall contain information by each party attesting to matters such as their sources of income, the assets presently held solely and/or jointly as well as their expenses, and their positions as regards the children’s care arrangements (if any).
Unlike pleadings in a civil action, there are no mandated default timelines for the filing and service of the AOM on the other party. Instead, these timelines are to be made by the court, bearing in mind the circumstances of the case. As such, it is also within the court’s discretion to grant an extension of time upon an application (whether orally or by written means) by one party after sufficient reasons are provided, should more time be required to prepare the AOMs.
Following the filing of parties’ respective AOMs, a reply affidavit in response to the matters raised in the AOM may be filed and served. Likewise, the timelines for doing so would be at the court’s discretion.
A party may also make an application for the discovery of documents or to administer interrogatories following the filing of the AOM. Such applications may be made for the underlying objective of unearthing documents and information that may lead to assets previously undisclosed in an AOM.
Approach to Division
The court’s approach to the division of matrimonial assets would largely depend on the nature and type of the marriage. The two key criteria are (i) whether it was a dual income or single income marriage, and (ii) the length of the marriage. The court also considers the direct financial contributions and indirect contributions (both financial and non-financial) of the parties in ascertaining a just and equitable division.
In dual-income marriages, the leading case is that of ANJ v ANK [2015] 4 SLR 1043, which sets out the following steps.
In long, single-income marriages, the division of matrimonial assets would tend towards equality (TNL v TNK and another appeal and another matter [2017] 1 SLR 609).
Financial Orders
Courts are afforded a wide range of options when deciding the financial orders to be made in regulating or reallocating marital assets. A non-exhaustive list of options includes:
The factors listed in Section 112(2) of the Women’s Charter 1961 are key considerations when deciding what orders are made with respect to the division of matrimonial assets, namely:
Identifying Assets
Matrimonial assets would include:
Gifts or inheritance monies received during the marriage and which have not been substantially improved on during the marriage would ordinarily not be classified as a matrimonial asset; a matrimonial home is the exception to the rule (subject to any third party interests).
Parties are expected to list all their assets in their affidavit of assets and means. In situations where a party has chosen not to participate in proceedings, the court may make orders for the Central Provident Fund (CPF) Board to provide disclosure of the non-participating spouse’s CPF monies.
Property Regimes
Singapore adopts a “deferred community of property” approach, wherein all matrimonial property is treated as community property (unless otherwise taken out of the pool) upon the termination of the marriage (Lock Yeng Fun v Chua Hock Chye [2007] 3 SLR(R) 520). The regime is reflected in the provisions in Section 112 of the Women’s Charter 1961 and applied accordingly.
Trusts
While the Family Courts remain open to concepts such as a resulting trust in favour of one spouse, where it is alleged that a third party holds a property on resulting trust for one spouse, a separate third-party action may need to be taken out in order to ascertain the beneficial ownership of the property.
Where the parties to the trust are the spouses themselves, the same may be more appropriately regarded and classified as a gift made by one spouse to the other, of which significant gifts are returned to the matrimonial pool for division (Yeo Gim Tong Michael v Tianzon Lolita [1996] SGCA 14).
If a trust property is held by one party for the benefit of the spouse or children, it is also likely that the same would be considered matrimonial property (subject to the nature of the trust).
In Singapore, the only persons who may apply for maintenance would be current or former wives, or incapacitated husbands.
An incapacitated husband is defined in the Women’s Charter 1961 to mean a husband who:
Courts have interpreted the definition of an incapacitated husband to mean that the husband should be incapacitated from earning a livelihood before falling under the definition provided above (USA v USB [2020] 4 SLR 288). In this respect, a certain degree of permanence should be met, before a husband would be deemed “incapacitated”. Nonetheless, other circumstances, such as the husband’s level of education and corresponding type of work he is likely to perform may also be taken into account (VJF v VJG [2020] SGFC 54).
In addition to maintenance post-divorce, wives and incapacitated husbands may also apply for maintenance from their spouse during the subsistence of the marriage, pursuant to Section 69 of the Women’s Charter 1961.
Interim Maintenance
A wife or incapacitated husband would be able to make an application to the court for interim maintenance from a spouse, pending the final determination of the ancillary matters. The factors considered by the court when determining the quantum of interim maintenance granted (if any) are the same as those considered when deciding the quantum of maintenance post-divorce. Interim maintenance to provide for the needs of any children of the marriage may also be ordered, whilst proceedings are pending.
The key difference between interim and final maintenance orders would be which factors are relevant based on the facts at the time the application is made. As an order for interim maintenance would be based on the circumstances prevailing at the time of the application, the quantum of such interim maintenance (if ordered) would be affected by circumstances which may be fluid, such as the ability of a former spouse to find employment, alternative accommodation or where the children of the marriage are residing. With the objective of the interim maintenance order being to “tide over” the spouse and any children until the final ancillary matters hearing, a corresponding decrease or increase in this quantum may be ordered at the final ancillary matters hearing, depending on the circumstances.
Quantum of Maintenance Post-Divorce
The overarching consideration of the court when deciding the quantum of any maintenance to be awarded is to adequately provide for the needs of the spouse and any children of the marriage. In doing so, it will have regard to all the circumstances of the case, including the factors listed in Section 114 of the Women’s Charter 1961, namely:
Each parent is jointly responsible for the maintenance of their children up until the age of 21, or unless the court is satisfied maintenance is necessary beyond that age, for example, because the child has enrolled in tertiary education or has special needs.
Spousal maintenance is also often complementary to the division of matrimonial assets, which may be used to even out financial inequalities between spouses, taking into account any economic prejudice suffered by the wife or incapacitated husband during the marriage (BG v BF [2007] 3 SLR 233).
An order for maintenance may be in one lump sum in order to provide parties with a “clean break” from the marriage, or may be in monthly instalments. However, the court in TDT v TDS and another appeal and another matter [2016] 4 SLR 145 has cautioned that the purpose of spousal maintenance is not for the husband to act as an “insurer” for the former wife – in line with this approach, courts have previously ordered no maintenance for wives who are employed and able to provide for their own needs.
Section 112(2)(e) of the Women’s Charter 1961 states that the court, in exercising its discretion to divide matrimonial assets, must have regard to “any agreement between the parties with respect to the ownership and division of the matrimonial assets made in contemplation of divorce”. However, the court is not bound to enforce any such agreement, but will determine the weight to ascribe to the agreement considering all the circumstances of the case (TQ v TR [2009] 2 SLR (R) 961).
For prenuptial agreements relating to children’s issues, the court would be especially vigilant and would be slow to enforce agreements that are not apparently in the best interests of the child or the children concerned (TQ v TR [2009] 2 SLR (R) 961).
If a prenuptial agreement is entered into by foreign nationals and governed by (as well as was valid according to) a foreign law (and assuming the foreign law is not repugnant to the public policy of Singapore), then the court may afford significant weight to the terms of that agreement (to avoid forum shopping). However, the court has maintained that it retains the overall discretion in determining the division of matrimonial assets.
For postnuptial agreements, the court may accord it more weight than prenuptial agreements in the exercise of its discretion (TQ v TR [2009] 2 SLR (R) 961).
Singapore does not recognise de facto relationships or cohabitation under the matrimonial law regime. For unmarried couples, the assets would be governed by principles of contract, trust or property law. Parties also do not acquire additional rights by virtue of length of cohabitation. For children born of unmarried couples, the children are considered illegitimate.
If a party fails to comply with a financial order, the other party can seek assistance with enforcement applications to be made in the court. These enforcement applications may include:
Naturally, if the party fails to comply with a court order, then an application for committal may also be commenced against the defaulting party.
For enforcement of maintenance orders, the party enforcing can consider making an application for:
The media and press are allowed to report on family court proceedings, save that Section 10 of the Family Justice Act 2014 provides that all hearings in the family courts generally are heard in camera and Section 112 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1993 prohibits the publishing or broadcasting of any information which may lead to the identification of any child or young person concerned in the proceedings.
Judgments for matrimonial proceedings which involve children below the age of 21 years are also redacted and/or anonymised to adhere to Section 112 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1993.
There has been significant push for parties to resolve matters amicably. To this end, parties have the option to commence pre-writ mediation, and there are bodies (eg, the Singapore Mediation Centre, Law Society of Singapore, Singapore International Mediation Institute), and numerous private practitioners in Singapore who provide mediation services.
In the court system, mediation is mandatory for divorced couples with children under the age of 21 years. Mediation can also be ordered in all other cases (including probate and mental capacity cases), if the court deems fit. The court may also order parties to attend private mediation for an amicable resolution. Practitioners are also expected to inform their clients about ADR options, such as mediation.
If the parties do not make reasonable attempts at resolving their disputes through ADR mechanisms, then the court retains the right to make costs orders against the defaulting party.
If there is an agreement arrived at via a non-court process, then such agreement can be recorded as an order of court (if there are pending court proceedings). Alternatively, a signed settlement agreement can also bind the parties. Generally, such agreements are enforceable, if legally valid.
The jurisdiction requirements for matrimonial proceedings are set out at 1.2 Choice of Jurisdiction. Generally, matters related to children in divorce proceedings are dealt with at the ancillary matters stage, after the grant of the interim judgment of divorce. The factors which the court would consider are also set out therein.
If the parents cannot agree on a child’s living arrangements, then a party can apply for the court to determine the same under the Guardianship of Infants Act 1934 (if no divorce proceedings have been commenced). For all matters concerning child-related issues, the principle is that the welfare of the child is paramount (BNS v BNT [2015] 3 SLR 973). The court would strive to make decisions which are in the best interests of the child. This is encapsulated in Section 3 of the Guardianship of Infants Act 1934. In divorce proceedings, the same principle is set out at Section 125 of the Women’s Charter 1961. In deciding a child’s living arrangements, the court can consider the wishes of the parents of the child and the wishes of the child, where they are of an age to express an independent opinion.
In considering the best interests of the child, the court can consider the following factors (which are non-exhaustive):
The courts have the power to decide on the following matters pertaining to a child:
Custody relates to the power to make major decisions regarding the child, eg, education, religion and healthcare. Care and control relates to the day-to-day care of the child. The party who is not granted care and control of the child would have access, ie, contact time with the child. Access arrangements would include considerations as to whether the contact time would include overnight or overseas access, the terms of holiday, public holidays or special occasions access.
For child maintenance, Section 68 of the Women’s Charter 1961 mandates that it is the duty of a parent to maintain their child. The court will have to take into account the following factors in deciding on the quantum of maintenance to order:
Generally, if the child is above 21, then the child would have to make the application in their personal capacity. Children over the age of 21 may apply for maintenance if they:
Parties can (and are encouraged to) resolve matters amicably, and also come to an agreement on maintenance matters. If there is a settlement, the same can be recorded as an order of court (if there are pending court proceedings) or be encapsulated in a settlement agreement.
See 3.2 Living/Contact Arrangements and Child Maintenance.
See 2.9 Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR).
Further, for legal proceedings involving children’s issues, the courts may also:
See 2.8 Media Access and Transparency.
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gen@bihlilee.com.sg www.bihlilee.comIntroduction to Family Law in Singapore
The practice of family law in Singapore is heavily influenced by the principles of therapeutic justice. Family disputes invariably involve non-legal considerations and the outcome of a family dispute has far-reaching consequences on those beyond the parties, namely, the parties’ children and extended families.
In recent years, the Family Justice Courts of Singapore have launched several initiatives to make family justice more accessible to parties and there is an increased focused on reducing and eliminating acrimony between parties. Such measures include mandatory pre-action counselling, mediation and reduced costs of bringing applications.
Triage Tools
It is of course ideal for family issues to be resolved at an early stage and without parties having to resort to litigation. When that cannot be achieved, it is crucial that the process facilitates an expeditious resolution of the issues at hand and that acrimony between parties is kept to a minimum. A pyrrhic victory is damaging and undesirable, especially when there are young children involved.
In Singapore, there continues to be a collaborative problem-solving approach adopted in family disputes. With the recent introduction of the triage tools for therapeutic justice, parties and family practitioners can expect the court to take an even more “judge-led approach” to resolving contentious family disputes. The judge-led approach has been a constant feature in case management by the courts, and is enshrined at Section 22 of the Family Justice Rules.
A multi-disciplinary approach will be adopted for selected high needs/conflict cases and it is expected to see increased involvement of counsellors and other agencies at an early stage to assist the parties in targeting points of conflict. In particular, this approach will involve the following triage tools.
It is expected that more triage tools will be added to support the problem-solving approach being adopted for family disputes.
No Fault
Singapore law requires proof of at least one of five facts to establish that a marriage has irretrievably broken down. These five facts are:
While Singapore has long made the change to a “no-fault” divorce regime, it is inevitable that some fault or blame on other party will be mentioned when seeking to prove that the marriage has broken down. This is especially apparent when the divorce application is brought on the basis of the other’s unreasonable behaviour or adultery. Re-hashing and recounting the unpleasantries makes it understandably difficult for parties to focus on the consequences of the breakdown and to move forward positively. Sometimes, it may even be the reason why parties choose to contest a divorce, which in turn, leads to added costs and a prolonging of the proceedings.
On 10 January 2022, the Singapore Parliament passed a bill to introduce a new ground for divorce in Singapore. The new ground, which is expected to come into effect in 2024, will allow parties to divorce by mutual agreement. Of course, an agreement simpliciter will not suffice. The existing prohibition where a divorce cannot be brought unless parties have been married for at least three years will still remain; ie, parties cannot mutually agree to file for divorce prior to this period of three years.
The new ground seeks to allow for parties to couch the reasons for divorce in a neutral manner. For example, parties can cite differences in parenting styles, beliefs or conflict resolution without having to blame or fault the other.
New Rules
At present, the Family Justice Rules 2014 (the “FJR 2014”) regulate and prescribe the procedures and practices for proceedings in the Family Justice Courts. Changes to the FJR 2014 have been announced and are expected to come into effect in 2024.
The new rules are targeted at streamlining the divorce process for parties and facilitating expeditious resolution, amongst other things.
Strengthening Enforcement
For most, divorce will not end upon the issuance of a final judgment. Parties, especially those with young children, will inevitably need to communicate with one another post-divorce. Some of the main challenges faced by parties navigating life after divorce include situations where one party fails to comply with their obligations to pay maintenance or when a former spouse refuses to abide by access arrangements. Non-compliance with maintenance and custody orders can significantly obstruct and impede the process of healing and moving forward. It can also be especially discouraging when an aggrieved party has to revisit and re-open a chapter of litigation.
The new amendments to the Women’s Charter 1961 will strengthen and simplify the enforcement process in respect of maintenance. The new Maintenance Enforcement Process (MEP) will distinguish between cases where a party simply refuses to pay and those where a party has difficulties in making maintenance payments. Importantly, under the MEP, the mediation process will now be dealt with by maintenance enforcement officers (MEO). The MEOs have the power to obtain information about parties’ assets and means from stipulated entities, such as government agencies, banks and other financial institutions. Under the MEP, the court can make a show-payment order which will require the respondent to prove that maintenance payments have been timely made. If a respondent cannot show that maintenance payments were made on time, they may face imprisonment.
The MEP will serve as a deterrence by sending a strong signal to those to refuse to comply with their maintenance obligations. That being said, where there are genuine reasons for non-compliance, the MEP will seek to assist parties to work out a sustainable way forward.
A Continued Commitment to Achieving Therapeutic Justice
It is expected that family law processes in Singapore will continue to develop to support therapeutic justice. Beyond the processes, it is also expected that the law will evolve and develop in a similar direction.
As it stands, the Family Justice Court already takes a “broad brush” approach when determining a just and equitable division of the matrimonial assets. The Court will not entertain an arithmetic exercise to calculate each party’s contributions. Another aspect crucial in the practice of therapeutic justice is the determination of costs. In many cases, the Court will be slow to award costs (or costs in the scale of commercial disputes) against a party in family proceedings to avoid exacerbating hostility between parties. At the other end of the spectrum is the use of costs as a tool to discourage aggressive practices that undermine therapeutic justice.
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